As a student of the multidisciplinary field of knowledge and practice from 1980 to 1982 in the Department of Zoology at Chiromo Campus of the University of Nairobi, Kenya, I was instructed in ecology, environmental conservation and management, computer science and the application of various ecological techniques in the study and solution of ecological and environmental problems and issues. I was thus introduced to the broad knowledge of environmental studies, ecological science and ecosystem science.

Critical thinking and reasoning as well comparative environmental, behavioural, ecological and ecosystem studies were valued aspects of the biology of conservation programme. It was also a valued aspect of the programme that we were introduced to social science and political science for conservationists. Indeed, conservation is not a technical but a social and cultural enterprise that is greatly influenced by politics. Politics decides to conserve or not conserve. That is why environmental politics and ecological politics are critical to the conservation enterprise. We were amply introduced to these areas of knowledge.

Environmental politics refers to the study of how political processes and decisions impact the management, conservation and resolution of environmental conservation and management issues in a “democratic” society. It is related to conservation politics.

Environment

Environment is everything and humans and human made systems are integral to it. It may be considered as consisting of four dimensions, namely: ecological-biological dimension (which is the only physical one), socioeconomic dimension, sociocultural dimension and time (or temporal) dimension. They are not mutually exclusive, disconnected and non-interactive. The adaptive challenge is learning to live in harmony and balance with nature. The environment is increasingly stressed by the demands of the world’s population. Struggles between economic interests and environmental interests occur over soil erosion, water pollution, endangered species, waste disposal, fishing rights, chemicals which hurt the ozone layer, and other environmental issues. The leadership challenge is to increase our ability to live within the limits of the environment in a way that supports generations of the future (Bower, 1995). Within the environment everything is connected to every other thing (Commoner, 1968).

Ecology

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans and their physical environment; it seeks to understand the vital connections between plants, animals and microbes and the world in which they are integrated. Sometimes it is referred to as ecological science. We can study the ecology of different things. Of critical importance is social ecology and the ecology of leadership in all spheres of human endeavour.

The ecological approach inherently recognises the complexity of our world and helps us understand it. If we are to understand the complexity of life, whether it be plant, animal, or human animal, we need to understand the complex systems of which they are a part. Leadership is no different. Leadership takes place in a variety of social and biological systems which are interdependent and mutually influencing (Kathleen E. Allen, Stephen P. Stelzner, and Richard M. Wielkiewicz, 2017).

The principles of an ecological approach to leadership are (1) Interdependence: Leadership does not exist in a vacuum; it emerges from systemic processes; (2) Open systems and feedback loops: Leadership requires systemic thinking to understand how feedback loops affect the organisation; (3) Cycling of resources: Organisations require leadership processes that make building the capacities of individuals and groups a critical priority; and (4) Adaptation: Leadership processes should be designed to influence the system instead of attempting to control it.  Leadership processes and individual actions should create a community of reciprocal care and shared responsibility and promote harmony with nature thereby providing sustainability for future generations (Kathleen E. Allen, Stephen P. Stelzner and Richard M. Wielkiewicz, 2017). An ecological theory of leadership assumes that human interactions can only be understood as part of an ecosystem – (i.e. the lens adjusts to see the forest, as well as the trees and their cells).

 An ecological perspective facilitates the creation of structures and processes, which are capable of responding to five adaptive challenges and addresses the implications for leadership, which emerge from these adaptive challenges, namely: living and working with a global perspective; living within environmental limits; transforming information into knowledge and wisdom; developing the wisdom and ethics to respond to scientific discoveries and innovations; and developing the capacity to adapt to changes in our social ecology (Kathleen E. Allen, Stephen P. Stelzner, and Richard M. Wielkiewicz, 2017).

Political ecology is an aspect of social ecology. Roberts (2020) writes, “Political ecology is a critical research field within anthropology and related disciplines that examines how and why economic structures and power relations drive environmental change in an increasingly interconnected world. Initially it was most well-known for investigating the practices and impacts of large-scale resource development projects in subsistence-oriented communities in the Global South. Over time, political ecology has expanded its research trajectory to include analyses of environmental politics and socio-ecological degradation in urban, industrialised settings as well”. 

Otherwise, political ecology is the study of the intersection and relationship between the political, broadly understood and environmental and ecological phenomena. Political, economic, social and cultural forces affect and are affected by ecological and environmental trends.

Ecosystem

Ecosystem (or ecological system) is the study of inter-relationships among the living organisms, physical features, biochemical processes, natural phenomena, and human activities in ecological communities. Sometimes it is referred to as ecosystem science. Simply defined in the language of ecology an ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular area. The term `eco’ refers to a part of the world and `system’ refers to the co-ordinating units. An ecosystem is a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. The biotic components of an ecosystem can be grouped into two types, namely, autotrophic components and heterotrophic components.

The ecosystem is the major structural and functional unit of ecology. The structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity; the more complex ecosystems have high species diversity. The function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycling through and within the system. The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure. The more complex the structure, the lesser the energy it needs to maintain itself. Ecosystems mature by passing from less complex to more complex stages.

Early stages of such succession have an excess of potential energy and a relatively high energy flow per unit biomass. Later (mature) stages have less energy accumulation and its flow through more diverse components. Both the environment and energy fixation in any given ecosystem are limited and cannot be exceeded without causing serious undesirable effects. Alterations in the environment represent selective pressures upon the population to which it must adjust. Organisms which are unable to adjust to the changed environment disappear ultimately. The ecosystem is largely divided into two components – abiotic and biotic components. The abiotic components of an ecosystem refer to the physical environment or the non-living factors. The biotic components of the ecosystems are the living organisms including plants, animals and microorganisms.

Natural ecosystems

A natural ecosystem is a community of living and non-living entities and occurs freely in nature. Every component interacts together as a combined unit through physical, chemical and biological processes. Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions without any major interference by man. The discriminating factor of natural ecosystems from other ecosystems is that they are completely natural. Artificial ecosystems are maintained artificially by human beings where, by addition of energy and planned manipulations, natural balance is disturbed regularly. For example, croplands like maize, wheat, rice-fields etc. where man tries to control the biotic community as well as the physico-chemical environment.

These are called as artificial or man-engineered ecosystems. Based on the kind of habitat, there are essentially two types of ecosystems: aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. The aquatic ecosystem includes marine and freshwater ecosystems. While, terrestrial ecosystems are the forests, grassland, deserts, mountain and man-made ecosystems.

Ecosystem ecology

Ecosystem ecology is the study of these and other questions about the living and non-living components within the environment, how these factors interact with each other, and how both natural and human-induced changes affect how they function. Understanding how ecosystems work begins with an understanding of how sunlight is converted into usable energy, the importance of nutrient cycling, and the impact mankind has on the environment. Plants convert sunlight into usable forms of energy that are carbon based.

Primary and secondary production in populations can be used to determine energy flow in ecosystems. Studying the effects of atmospheric CO₂ will have future implications for agricultural production and food quality. A new focus in ecosystem ecology has been climate change. The world is being altered at an alarming pace from greater to lesser precipitation in some areas to change in ecosystems from grasslands to desert (desertification) or forests to grasslands (increased aridity). Ecosystem ecologists are now studying the causes and effects of climate change, hoping to one day minimise our impact on the planet and preserve natural ecosystems as we know them today (The Nature Education Knowledge Project)

Political Ecosystem

The biology of conservation field recognises seven different ecosystems in the biological world: forest ecosystem, grassland ecosystem, tundra ecosystem, desert ecosystem, freshwater ecosystem and marine ecosystem. I have worked in all these ecosystems except the desert and tundra ecosystems. It is, however, important to understand the political ecosystem.

Understanding the political ecosystem is crucial for comprehending how policies are formulated, decisions are made and power is distributed within a given region or country. It involves analysing the interaction and interdependencies among these various components to gain insights into the functioning of a political system. A political system in power will decide how people and society relate to the environment, ecology and ecosystems. Heslop (2023) defines political ecosystem as “the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a “government” or a “state.” This is the definition adopted by many studies of the legal or constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders. More broadly defined, however, the term comprehends actual as well as prescribed forms of political behaviour, not only the legal organisation of the state but also the reality of how the state functions (Heslop, 2023). Still more broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of “processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting with other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system (Heslop, 2023). This, as Heslop (2023) observes, points to the importance of informal sociopolitical processes and emphasises the study of political development of a given country, its people and its communities, including the digital ones. 

Entrepreneurship

Swedberg (2000) argued that the social sciences have a very important contribution to make, not only to the theoretical understanding of entrepreneurship but also to entrepreneurship as a practical enterprise. He further argued  that the social sciences can provide new and fresh ideas about the theory and practice of entrepreneurship, by looking at innovative business behaviour in other times, in other societies, and in other cultures and also by looking at entrepreneurship from novel angles and from the perspective of a much wider range of actors than is commonly done.

According to Hidayat Rizvi (2024) “entrepreneurship is a social science although it is often perceived as a field of business. Its roots dig deep into the social sciences. The study of entrepreneurship encompasses understanding how individual behaviours, societal trends, and cultural practices influence the formation and growth of new ventures. Entrepreneurs don’t operate in a vacuum; their success relies on an acute awareness of social dynamics and human psychology, subjects central to social science studies. As it scrutinises the impact on and by communities and social structures, entrepreneurship undoubtedly aligns itself with social science”.

On the other hand, in their book “The Entrepreneurial Humanities: The Crucial Role of the Humanities in Enterprise and the Economy”,  Alain-Philippe Durand and Christine Henseler  (2023) explore how a humanities background can enable entrepreneurs to thrive. They note that discussions of innovation and entrepreneurship highlight the importance of essential skills, such as critical thinking, storytelling, cultural awareness, and ethical decision-making; and emphasise the practical value of the humanities in an ever more mechanized world.

Natural science entrepreneurship

Natural science entrepreneurship is critical to socioeconomic transformation. We can simply call it scientific entrepreneurship and define it as “the ability to translate abstract theories and laboratory experiments into practical solutions that impact industries and societies meaningfully. It requires not only scientific expertise but also entrepreneurial mindset and business acumen.”

Scientific entrepreneurs are adept at identifying market opportunities, assessing technological feasibility, securing funding, navigating regulatory hurdles and bringing innovations to market successfully (Mind the Graph, 2024). According to Mind the Graph (2024), scientific entrepreneurship represents a dynamic synergy between scientific inquiry and entrepreneurial innovation. At its core, it involves the transformation of scientific discoveries, breakthroughs, and research findings into tangible products, services or ventures with commercial value. Scientific entrepreneurship connects academic research with practical, real-world applications, leveraging scientific knowledge to address market needs and drive economic growth. In their theoretical paper. In The Role of Entrepreneurship in Nature of Science and Science Education, Sila Kaya-Cappoci, Sibel Erduran and Naomi Birdthistle (2015) ultimately, seek to establish those skills and attitudes that are demanded by the entrepreneurial environment of global science.

• A Tell report / By Prof Oweyegha-Afunaduula, a former professor in the Department of Environmental Sciences of the Makerere University, Uganda. Prof Owegha-Afunaduula is also a cofounder of Centre for Critical Thinking and Alternative Analysis, Uganda.