Old habits die hard – or so it seems – as Kenyan police service hobbles towards the 2027 general election with what appears as the unchanging old mind-set.

Between June 2024 and June 2026, documented evidence shows that more than 100 people were killed during political protests in Kenya. The number could be higher than what the civil society and human right groups have captured. Media reports and security experts and civil society are almost unanimous that next year’s elections could be most violent in the country’s history of electoral violence.

President William Ruto and his Interior Cabinet Secretary Kipchumba Murkomen are on record telling the police to use gunfire liberally to quell political protests. While the greenlight to use live bullets has been condemned by the public – including civil society and the opposition – a section of the judiciary and the international community, questions are often asked of the legislature that, of necessity, must check the executive.

The killings, appropriately referred to as extrajudicial, are – except in a few cases when police have had to bow to pressure if the killing took place in police custody – never instigated and the rogue and trigger-happy officer arraigned in court to answer murder charges.

Such impunity is the background of the police reforms that were initiated by retired Justice Philip Ransley contained in Report of the National Task Force on Police Reforms.

The report notes: “The Task Force examined in detail the organisational structures of both Kenya Police and Administration Police. It became clear that the current structures can no longer sustain an efficient police service, taking into account the increased population, the state of insecurity in the country, the emerging security challenges occasioned by national and international threats, and the increasingly well-informed and sophisticated Kenyan community.  All these challenges brought to the fore issues related to overlap of functions, perceived competition and questions as whether they should continue existing in their current forms, consequently leading to the question of the merger of the two forces.”

The questions and concerns have been revisited in a new research that points to a stagnation in reforms that in turn affects post-election conflict resolution.

The research finding in Mathare, Mukuru and Kibera informal settlements demonstrate that while the amalgamation of the police formations has been done, questions abound the mind-sets of the law enforcers. One of the most interesting findings of the research in informal settlements is the correlation between levels of education and crowd controls in slums. Related to the education levels is the in-service training and retraining as was recommended by the Ransley taskforce.

In “Police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts in nairobi’s informal settlements, Kenya,” Peter Wasswa Mulesi, a doctoral cndidate at Kakamega-based Masinde Muliro Univrsity of Science and Technology, highlights subtle inequalities and inequiis that impact polic profssiolasim and civilian ovrsight in navigating political transition-related conflicts.

“Consequently, the interaction between uneven police professionalism, weak civilian oversight and spatial socio-economic inequalities in shaping conflict management outcomes remains insufficiently understood,” Mulesi says.

The research in informal settlements in the Kenyan capital is informed by recent election history since the restoration of democracy in 1992. Political contests in Kenya are predictably bloody – and without exception – record fatalities. In informal settlements the elections bear the comparison with Armageddon. This is because of institutional inefficiencies that create grey areas the police exploit to duck accountability and responsibility.

“The bedrock of any democratic society is a police service dedicated to serving the public by ensuring that law and order is maintained…Reforming the police without also targeting reforms in other sectors, is therefore unlikely to have as pronounced an impact on the broad Kenyan society as many might expect. 

The Ransley report calls for moral and ethical regeneration of the Kenyan public with the assistance of parents, schools, faith organisations and leaders from different sectors in Kenya is required.

“In addition, ongoing initiatives from Kenyans are necessary to diffuse and overcome ethnic and tribal divisions…Reforms need to impact positively on confidence levels of the public as well as on the morale of police members. The way in which government deals with police reforms will determine whether new hope is engendered both within the public and the police that things are turning around and that a safer future awaits them,” the report says.

Mulesi research points out, “Research conducted within politically contested environments demonstrated that professional policing characterised by restraint, communication and de-escalation contributes to peaceful management of protests and electoral tensions while force-oriented approaches frequently intensify violence and weaken institutional legitimacy.”

In addition, the researcher says, “Joint training programmes, community policing initiatives, public accountability forums, early warning systems and integrated human rights education programmes were identified as important mechanisms for strengthening professionalism, public trust and institutional legitimacy

The following is a section of research findings in Mukuru, Mathare and Kibera informal settlements in Nairobi:

Police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts in nairobi’s informal settlements, Kenya

Abstract

The study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in the management of political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. Specifically, the study interrogated the extent to which police officers adhered to professionalism during political transition-related conflicts; examined the spatial and socio-economic disparities influencing the application of police professionalism during political transitions; assessed the influence of Civilian Oversight Institutions (COIs) on police professionalism and accountability; and Analysed the challenges and opportunities shaping police professionalism during political transitions.

The study was guided by Social Contract Theory, Regime Theory and Conflict Transformation Theory and grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms. A mixed-methods descriptive survey design was employed targeting police officers, representatives of civilian oversight institutions and residents within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements.

Using the Krejcie and Morgan sampling framework, a sample size of 384 respondents was selected through stratified purposive and random sampling techniques. Data were collected using structured questionnaires, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and documentary review. Quantitative data were Analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics including frequencies, percentages, means, correlation and regression analysis while qualitative data were Analysed thematically through coding, interpretation and narrative analysis.

The findings established that police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts was moderate but spatially differentiated as reflected in an overall Police Professionalism Index (PPI) score of 46 per cent, with Mukuru recording comparatively higher professionalism outcomes than Kibera and Mathare. The findings further revealed significant divergence between police self-assessments and community perceptions thereby demonstrating an institutional-experiential gap in the operationalization of professionalism.

Correlation and regression findings demonstrated statistically significant relationships between spatial socio-economic inequalities and policing outcomes with heightened poverty, marginalization, congestion and infrastructural deficits associated with increased reports of aggressive and coercive policing particularly within Mathare where exposure to aggressive policing reached 57 per cent compared to 48 per cent in Kibera and 34 per cent in Mukuru. Inferential findings confirmed these spatial disparities to be statistically significant (p < 0.05).

Civilian Oversight Institutions were found to play a critical but uneven mediating role through investigations, monitoring, accountability enforcement and community engagement although their effectiveness remained constrained by limited accessibility, delayed case resolution, weak enforcement capacity, institutional limitations and low public awareness. The study further established that political interference, operational constraints, weak coordination mechanisms and training gaps continued to undermine professional policing during political transitions. The study concludes that management of political transition-related conflicts within Nairobi’s informal settlements is shaped by a dynamic interaction between police professionalism, civilian oversight and spatial socio-economic inequalities rather than by institutional policing frameworks alone.

The study recommends that the National Police Service, National Police Service Commission, Independent Policing Oversight Authority, Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, Ministry of Interior and National Administration and Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission institutionalize scenario-based training on de-escalation, crowd management and human rights compliance; strengthen real-time complaint tracking and enforcement mechanisms; decentralize oversight accessibility within informal settlements; and undertake rapid spatial audits to guide equitable resource deployment and conflict-sensitive policing during political transitions. The study contributes to scholarship on democratic policing, civilian oversight and conflict governance and may benefit scholars, policymakers, peace and security institutions, electoral management bodies and communities within informal settlements.

Keywords: police professionalism; Police Professionalism Index (PPI); civilian oversight; political transition-related conflicts; informal settlements; accountability; Nairobi County; Kenya.Top of Form

Bottom of Form

 Introduction

Globally, political transition periods are frequently associated with insecurity social unrest and contestation over state legitimacy particularly within informal settlements characterised by poverty socio-economic exclusion and weak state presence (UN-Habitat, 2022; OECD, 2021). During such periods police institutions become central actors in the management of demonstrations electoral tensions and politically motivated violence.

Consequently, police conduct increasingly functions as a critical measure of democratic governance legitimacy and accountability (Bayley, 2020; Manning, 2021).

Contemporary policing scholarship identifies professionalism accountability, legality restraint and political neutrality as essential foundations of democratic policing (Tyler, 2021; Stone & Travis, 2011). However, weak professionalism often contributes to excessive use of force, arbitrary arrests, suppression of dissent and deteriorating police-community relations particularly during politically sensitive periods (Amnesty International, 2023; Human Rights Watch, 2022). This has generated increasing emphasis on democratic and rights-based policing frameworks grounded in procedural justice transparency proportionality and citizen-centred service delivery (Loader & Walker, 2021; Manning, 2021).

Within this shift policing is no longer assessed solely through crime rates arrest statistics or response times which inadequately capture accountability fairness and public trust (Moore, 2013; Maguire, 2003). Consequently, policing scholarship increasingly advocates legitimacy-centred frameworks such as the Police Professionalism Index (PPI), which evaluates policing through legality, accountability, proportionality, political neutrality, operational restraint, ethical conduct and public trust.

Across Africa, policing institutions continue to experience challenges associated with colonial policing legacies, politicisation, weak accountability systems and regime-centred security orientations (Aning & Edu-Afful, 2023; Baker, 2021). Despite post-independence reforms many African states continue to experience militarised policing, selective law enforcement and excessive use of force during election protests and politically contested transitions (Hills, 2021; Onkware, 2020).

Within the East African Community police institutions in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya have repeatedly faced criticism regarding suppression of opposition mobilisation disproportionate force and weak civilian accountability during electoral periods (Freedom House, 2024; International Crisis Group, 2022).

In Kenya political transition-related conflicts have consistently tested the professionalism neutrality and accountability of policing institutions. The colonial origins of policing were historically associated with coercive control, suppression of resistance and protection of regime interests, thereby embedding authoritarian policing cultures within the post-colonial state (Branch, 2020; Anderson, 2021). Informal settlements increasingly became securitised spaces characterised by aggressive surveillance, coercive crowd control and strained police-community relations (Murunga, 2021; Nasong’o, 2020).

The 2007-2008 post-election violence represented a major turning point in policing and democratic governance in Kenya. The Waki Commission and Kriegler Commission established that police institutions were directly implicated in excessive use of force unlawful killings operational failures politicized deployments and weak accountability during the violence (Waki Commission, 2008; Kriegler Commission, 2008).

Reports by the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights further documented widespread human rights violations including arbitrary arrests, disappearances and disproportionate force by security agencies (KNCHR, 2021). The gravity of police involvement was further reflected in proceedings before the International Criminal Court at The Hague where senior state and security officials including former Police Commissioner Major General Hussein Ali were linked to failures in managing post-election violence and protecting civilians during the crisis. These developments placed police professionalism accountability and operational responsibility at the centre of debates on political transition-related conflict management in Kenya.

The post-2008 reform period consequently generated significant institutional restructuring through the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and establishment of oversight institutions including the Independent Policing Oversight Authority (IPOA) and the National Police Service Commission (NPSC). Article 244 of the Constitution emphasises professionalism, accountability, discipline, transparency and compliance with human rights standards within the National Police Service (IPOA, 2023; NPSC, 2022). Despite these reforms, subsequent electoral periods including 2013, 2017 and 2022 continued to reveal concerns regarding police brutality, disproportionate force, political interference and uneven implementation of reforms particularly within informal settlements characterised by socio-economic marginalisation and intense political mobilisation (Amnesty International, 2023; Human Rights Watch, 2024; Onkware & Lutomia, 2024).

More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests including the 2024-2025 Gen Z demonstrations further exposed limitations of conventional command-and-control policing approaches within decentralised protest environments (Kimokoti, 2021; International Crisis Group, 2024).

These tensions remain particularly evident in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements in Nairobi County. The settlements are characterised by high population density, unemployment, infrastructural deficit, poverty and adversarial police-community relations which collectively shape policing outcomes during political transitions (UN-Habitat, 2022; Wacquant, 2023). Studies by Murunga Nasong’o and Onkware demonstrate that informal settlements have historically functioned as spaces of political contestation securitisation and uneven state presence where policing reflects broader structural inequalities and regime security priorities (Murunga, 2021; Nasong’o, 2020; Onkware, 2020).

The study was anchored on Social Contract Regime Theory and Conflict Transformation Theory and grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms. It focused on Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements and examined police professionalism civilian oversight spatial disparities accountability mechanisms and police-community relations during political transition-related conflicts in Kenya. Despite constitutional reforms and institutional restructuring, concerns regarding coercive policing weak oversight coordination and uneven professionalism continue to persist particularly within marginalised informal settlements.

Consequently, the study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts within Nairobi’s informal settlements, Kenya.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Police professionalism remains a major concern in the management of political transition-related conflicts because policing institutions are expected to uphold legality, accountability, political neutrality and protection of human rights during election protests and periods of political contestation (Tyler, 2021; Tankebe, 2022). In Kenya, political transitions particularly the elections of 2007, 2013, 2017 and 2022 repeatedly generated protests, electoral disputes and violent contestation over state legitimacy thereby placing the police at the centre of conflict management and public order maintenance.

The 2007-2008 post-election violence exposed major institutional weaknesses within the police service, including excessive use of force, politicised deployments, operational failures and weak accountability mechanisms (Waki Commission, 2008; KNCHR, 2021). Although the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and subsequent police reforms introduced civilian oversight institutions and emphasized professionalism, accountability and human rights compliance, subsequent electoral periods continued to attract allegations of police brutality, disproportionate force, arbitrary arrests and uneven law enforcement particularly during protests and post-election demonstrations (Amnesty International, 2017; Human Rights Watch, 2022; IPOA, 2023). More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests between 2024 and 2025 further exposed persistent challenges relating to crowd management, operational restraint and police-community relations within politically volatile urban environments (Amnesty International, 2023; IPOA, 2024).

These challenges are particularly pronounced within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements where policing occurs under conditions of poverty, congestion, infrastructural deficits, socio-economic marginalisation and intense political mobilisation. Across multiple electoral cycles, these settlements repeatedly emerged as focal points of protests, police deployment and violent confrontation (KHRC, 2022; KNCHR, 2023). Spatial and socio-economic inequalities within these marginalised urban environments continue to shape policing outcomes, with densely populated and economically excluded areas experiencing more reactive, force-oriented and enforcement-heavy policing approaches (Mutahi, 2024; UN-Habitat, 2022). At the same time, civilian oversight institutions such as the Independent Policing Oversight Authority and Kenya National Commission on Human Rights continue to face limitations related to accessibility, enforcement capacity, delayed case resolution and low public awareness, thereby constraining their effectiveness in promoting accountability and influencing police conduct during periods of political contestation (IPOA, 2024; KNCHR, 2024).

Despite the persistence and evolving nature of these challenges, existing studies have largely examined police reforms, electoral violence, democratisation, civilian oversight and conflict management separately with limited empirical attention directed towards the nexus between police professionalism, civilian oversight and spatial inequalities within informal settlements (Akech, 2021; Ruteere & Mutahi, 2022). Consequently, the interaction between uneven police professionalism, weak civilian oversight and spatial socio-economic inequalities in shaping conflict management outcomes remains insufficiently understood.

This study, therefore, sought to address this gap by examining how police professionalism, civilian oversight and spatial inequalities collectively influence the management of political transition-related conflicts within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya.

1.3 Objective of the study

The study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in the management of political transition-related conflicts within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru in Nairobi. The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. Examine the extent to which police officers adhere to professional policing standards in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements;
2. Examine the spatial and socio-economic disparities influencing police professionalism during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements;
3. Assess the influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism and accountability during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements; and
4. Analyse the challenges and opportunities shaping collaboration between police institutions and civilian oversight institutions in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements.

2.0 Literature review

The literature review examined scholarship related to police professionalism, civilian oversight and management of political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements. The review was organized according to the objectives of the study namely: examining the extent to which police officers adhered to professional policing standards; assessing the spatial and socio-economic disparities influencing police professionalism; evaluating the influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism and accountability; and analysing the challenges and opportunities shaping collaboration between police institutions and civilian oversight institutions. The review further explored theoretical, conceptual and empirical perspectives relating to democratic policing, accountability, conflict management and spatial inequality within marginalised urban environments.

Existing scholarship demonstrated that policing during elections, protests and politically contested periods remains closely associated with state legitimacy, institutional accountability and public trust (Tyler, 2021; Tankebe, 2022). Studies further established that informal settlements frequently experience differentiated and coercive forms of policing shaped by socio-economic exclusion, territorial stigmatisation and operational pressures (Ruteere & Mutahi, 2022; UN-Habitat, 2022). Although research on police reforms, electoral violence and civilian oversight expanded significantly following the 2007-2008 post-election violence, much of the literature examined these themes separately with limited empirical attention directed towards their interaction within conflict-prone informal settlements (Akech, 2021; IPOA, 2024). Consequently, important conceptual and empirical gaps remained regarding how police professionalism, civilian oversight, spatial inequalities and institutional collaboration collectively influence conflict management outcomes within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements.

2.1 Police professionalism and democratic policing

Police professionalism has been widely conceptualised as a multidimensional construct encompassing legality, accountability, ethical conduct, political neutrality, operational competence, procedural justice and proportional use of force (Bayley, 2006; Bruce, 2011). Democratic policing scholarship emphasised that professionalism extends beyond crime control and operational efficiency to include adherence to constitutional principles, transparency and responsiveness to citizens (Stone & Ward, 2000; Goldsmith, 2005). Scholars further argued that the legitimacy of policing institutions depends significantly on the extent to which coercive authority is exercised within accepted legal and ethical standards (Tyler, 2021; Tankebe, 2022).

Research conducted within politically contested environments demonstrated that professional policing characterised by restraint, communication and de-escalation contributes to peaceful management of protests and electoral tensions while force-oriented approaches frequently intensify violence and weaken institutional legitimacy (Marks, 2017; Newburn, 2020). Comparative studies from transitional democracies further revealed that marginalised urban communities often experience more coercive and reactive forms of policing due to perceptions of disorder, criminality and political volatility (Wacquant, 2008; Rios, 2011).

In Kenya, police professionalism emerged as a major governance concern following the 2007-2008 post-election violence which exposed operational failures, excessive use of force and weak accountability within the police service (CIPEV, 2008). Although the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and subsequent reforms introduced institutional restructuring and professionalization measures, allegations of police brutality, arbitrary arrests and disproportionate force continued to emerge particularly during elections, demonstrations and protest actions (Amnesty International, 2017; IPOA, 2024). Existing studies further established that policing practices varied across operational environments with informal settlements experiencing more enforcement-oriented and confrontational policing approaches compared to affluent urban areas (Mutahi, 2024; KNCHR, 2023).

Studies examining policing within Nairobi informal settlements revealed persistent tensions between police institutions and local communities particularly during politically sensitive periods. Research showed that police deployments in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru frequently emphasised crowd control, surveillance and tactical enforcement rather than negotiation and procedural engagement (KHRC, 2022). Such approaches contributed to mistrust, fear and perceptions of selective law enforcement thereby undermining police legitimacy and public cooperation. Existing literature therefore suggested that professionalism within informal settlements remains contingent upon broader operational, socio-economic and political conditions.

2.2 Spatial and socio-economic disparities influencing police professionalism

The literature demonstrated that spatial and socio-economic inequalities significantly shape policing outcomes and police-community relations. Urban policing scholars argued that marginalised settlements frequently experience both over-policing through coercive surveillance and under-protection through inadequate access to responsive public security services (Wacquant, 2008; Davis, 2017). Informal settlements were often represented as zones of criminality, disorder and political instability thereby legitimising aggressive deployment patterns and reactive policing strategies (Caldeira, 2017).

Studies conducted within African cities established that poverty, congestion, unemployment, infrastructural deficits and weak public services contribute to heightened operational pressure and adversarial police-community relations (Alemika, 2019; Baker, 2021). Within such environments, policing institutions frequently adopted reactive and force-oriented strategies aimed at rapid containment rather than long-term conflict management and trust-building. Research further indicated that spatial inequalities shaped both police perceptions and deployment decisions thereby reinforcing differentiated experiences of policing across urban spaces (Rios, 2011).

Research conducted within Nairobi informal settlements similarly demonstrated that Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru repeatedly experienced intensified police deployment, surveillance and violent confrontations during elections and protests (KHRC, 2022; Human Rights Watch, 2022). Existing studies established that police officers often perceived informal settlements as volatile and high-risk operational environments associated with criminality and political violence. Consequently, police responses within these settlements frequently involved anticipatory deployments, lower thresholds for intervention and greater reliance on force-oriented crowd-control approaches (Mutahi, 2024).

The Waki Commission (2008) further established that socio-economic exclusion and territorial marginalisation contributed significantly to violence during the 2007-2008 post-election crisis. Subsequent studies identified continuity in these patterns during the 2013, 2017 and 2022 electoral cycles where informal settlements remained highly securitised spaces associated with police violence, fatalities and destruction of property (Amnesty International, 2023; KNCHR, 2023). More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests similarly exposed persistent challenges relating to operational restraint and police-community relations within marginalised urban environments (IPOA, 2024).

Existing scholarship therefore demonstrated that police professionalism is structurally shaped by spatial realities and socio-economic inequalities rather than institutional regulations alone. However, limited empirical attention had been directed towards examining how these spatial inequalities specifically influence professionalism outcomes within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru across multiple electoral cycles.

2.3 Influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism

Civilian oversight institutions emerged as important mechanisms for strengthening accountability, regulating police conduct and enhancing public confidence in policing institutions (Prenzler, 2009; Goldsmith, 2005). Democratic policing literature argued that effective oversight contributes to professionalism through investigations of misconduct, operational monitoring, disciplinary recommendations and promotion of institutional transparency (Stone & Ward, 2000; Bruce, 2011). Studies further established that strong oversight institutions contribute to reduced impunity and improved institutional legitimacy particularly within transitional democracies (Newburn, 2020).

In Kenya, the establishment of the Independent Policing Oversight Authority, the National Police Service Commission and the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights represented major reform initiatives introduced following the post-election violence of 2007–2008. Existing studies established that these institutions contributed to investigations into police misconduct, monitoring of police operations and promotion of accountability and human rights awareness (IPOA, 2023; KNCHR, 2024). Oversight institutions also increased public visibility of police accountability processes particularly regarding extrajudicial killings, injuries and misconduct allegations during protests and demonstrations.

Despite these reforms, existing scholarship continued to report persistent accountability challenges including delayed investigations, weak enforcement capacity, political interference and limited accessibility particularly within informal settlements (Ruteere, 2020; Akech, 2021). Studies further indicated that fear of retaliation, low public awareness and weak institutional presence constrained reporting and resolution of police misconduct cases within marginalised communities (IPOA, 2024). Consequently, although oversight institutions formally existed, their practical influence on police behaviour and operational culture remained inconsistent particularly during periods of political contestation.

Research additionally demonstrated that civilian oversight effectiveness frequently depended on institutional independence, operational capacity, public cooperation and implementation of disciplinary recommendations (Bruce, 2011). However, limited empirical attention had been directed towards examining how oversight institutions interact with spatial inequalities and operational policing realities within Nairobi’s informal settlements. This study therefore sought to address this gap by examining the influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru.

2.4 Challenges and opportunities shaping police-oversight collaboration

The literature identified institutional fragmentation, political interference, weak coordination and resource limitations as major barriers affecting collaboration between police institutions and civilian oversight actors (Bruce, 2011; IPOA, 2024). Existing studies established that oversight institutions frequently lacked sufficient investigative capacity, decentralized operational structures and enforcement authority necessary to consistently influence police operational behaviour. Similarly, police institutions often perceived oversight interventions as punitive thereby weakening institutional trust and cooperation (Ruteere, 2020).

Research further identified operational constraints such as inadequate personnel, limited logistical support, overcrowded settlements and heightened political pressure as factors undermining professionalism and accountability within informal settlements (KNCHR, 2023; Baker, 2021). Training gaps particularly in crowd management, de-escalation, negotiation and human rights compliance were also identified as major challenges affecting police responses during protests and demonstrations (Amnesty International, 2023; IPOA, 2024). These institutional weaknesses frequently reinforced confrontational police-community relations and weakened effective conflict management.

Existing literature also demonstrated that delayed investigations, weak implementation of recommendations and limited public confidence reduced the effectiveness of collaboration between oversight institutions and policing agencies (Akech, 2021). Fear of retaliation, distrust of formal institutions and limited awareness regarding complaint mechanisms further discouraged reporting of police misconduct within informal settlements (KNCHR, 2024). Consequently, many cases involving alleged abuse remained unresolved thereby weakening accountability and institutional legitimacy.

Despite these challenges, the literature identified significant opportunities for improving collaboration between police institutions and oversight actors. Joint training programmes, community policing initiatives, public accountability forums, early warning systems and integrated human rights education programmes were identified as important mechanisms for strengthening professionalism, public trust and institutional legitimacy (Tyler, 2021; KNCHR, 2024). Studies further demonstrated that collaborative approaches involving communities, civil society organizations and oversight institutions contributed to improved communication, de-escalation and accountability particularly within conflict-prone urban environments (Goldsmith, 2005; Baker, 2021).

Studies additionally emphasised the importance of context-sensitive policing approaches capable of addressing the specific operational realities of informal settlements. Community engagement, procedural justice, equitable deployment of resources and improved accessibility of oversight institutions were identified as critical factors in strengthening democratic policing and reducing violent confrontation (Tankebe, 2022; Ruteere & Mutahi, 2022). However, limited empirical attention had been directed towards examining how such collaborative opportunities could be operationalized within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru. This study therefore sought to address this gap by analysing the challenges and opportunities shaping police–oversight collaboration within Nairobi’s informal settlements.

2.6 Literature gap and conclusion

The reviewed literature demonstrated substantial scholarship on democratic policing, police reforms, civilian oversight and electoral conflict management within Kenya and other transitional societies. Existing studies established that police professionalism, accountability and public trust remain critical determinants of effective conflict management particularly within marginalised urban environments characterised by socio-economic exclusion, political volatility and strained police-community relations. However, significant conceptual and methodological gaps remained within existing scholarship. Most studies relied on descriptive assessments, institutional narratives or isolated indicators such as complaints, human rights violations and operational efficiency without developing integrated and measurable frameworks for systematically assessing police professionalism across different operational and spatial contexts.

Existing literature also examined police professionalism, civilian oversight and conflict management largely in isolation with limited empirical attention directed towards their interaction within informal settlements across multiple electoral cycles.

8Consequently, insufficient understanding existed regarding how spatial inequalities influence professionalism, accountability and policing outcomes within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru. This study addressed these conceptual, empirical and methodological gaps by introducing the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) as a multidimensional and measurable analytical framework operationalized through indicators including legality, proportionality, accountability, political neutrality, operational competence and police-community engagement. Through integration of mixed-methods evidence and index-based analysis, the study generated a more systematic, context-sensitive and empirically measurable understanding of police professionalism, civilian oversight and conflict management within Nairobi’s informal settlements.

3.0 Methodology

3.1 Research approach and design

The study adopted a mixed-methods descriptive cross-sectional research design grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms to examine police professionalism, civilian oversight and conflict management within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. The mixed-methods approach enabled integration of quantitative and qualitative data in order to capture both measurable policing patterns and contextual experiences associated with accountability, oversight and police-community relations. The descriptive cross-sectional design facilitated systematic examination of existing policing and oversight dynamics across respondent groups and locations without manipulation of variables.

3.2 Study area and population

The study was conducted in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. The settlements were purposively selected due to their history of political mobilization, socio-economic marginalisation, high population density and recurrent exposure to electoral tensions, demonstrations and police-community confrontations. According to the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2019), the combined population of the three settlements was approximately 635,282 residents. The study population comprised police officers, residents of informal settlements and civilian oversight actors including officials from the Independent Policing Oversight Authority, the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights, civil society organizations, community justice centres and faith-based organisations.

3.3 Sample size and sampling techniques

Using the Krejcie and Morgan sampling framework, a sample size of 384 respondents was selected. The study employed purposive, stratified and random sampling techniques in order to ensure representation of operational, institutional and community perspectives. The sample was proportionally distributed across Kibera (112), Mathare (125) and Mukuru (147) based on population size to ensure balanced representation across the study sites. Purposive sampling identified police officers and oversight actors with relevant operational and institutional experience, while stratified and random sampling techniques were applied to community respondents to reduce selection bias and enhance representativeness.

3.4 Data collection and analysis

Data were collected over a six-week period using structured questionnaires, Key Informant Interviews (KIIs), Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and documentary review. Structured questionnaires administered through Google Forms generated quantitative data from police officers and community respondents, while KIIs and FGDs generated qualitative insights from institutional actors and community members. Secondary data were obtained from institutional reports, parliamentary records, policy documents, civil society reports and academic literature to support triangulation and contextual analysis. Ethical considerations including informed consent, confidentiality, voluntary participation and respondent anonymity were observed throughout the study.

Quantitative data were analysed using SPSS Version 28 through descriptive and inferential statistics including frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations, Pearson correlation and multiple regression analysis. The study further developed the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) as a composite and measurable framework operationalised through indicators including legality, accountability, proportionality, impartiality and police-community engagement. Qualitative data from KIIs and FGDs were transcribed, coded and analysed thematically through comparative narrative interpretation and triangulation across respondent categories and settlements. The integration of mixed-methods evidence enabled a systematic, context-sensitive and empirically grounded analysis of police professionalism, civilian oversight and conflict management within Nairobi’s informal settlements.

Source: Researcher, 2026

Figure 3.1 presents the geographical location of Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru within Nairobi County.

 The figure illustrates the spatial distribution of the three informal settlements and demonstrates their concentration within densely populated urban zones characterised by infrastructural pressure and socio-economic deprivation.

4.0 Results and findings

4.1 Respondents’ demographic and deployment characteristics

The findings showed that 62.0 per cent (n=238) of respondents were male while 38.0 per cent (n=146) were female, indicating male dominance within policing and security-related operations during political transition-related conflicts. In relation to age distribution, 24.1 per cent of respondents were aged between 20-29 years, 42.2 per cent were between 30–39 years, 29.5 per cent were between 40-49 years while 4.2 per cent were aged above 50 years. The findings therefore demonstrated that most respondents were within the economically active and operationally experienced age categories associated with frontline policing responsibilities.

Educationally, 58.1 per cent of respondents possessed secondary-level education, 32.4 per cent held diploma qualifications while 9.5 per cent possessed undergraduate qualifications. In terms of police rank distribution, 26.2 per cent were corporals, 21.5 per cent were sergeants, 19.8 per cent were senior officers, 17.3 per cent were constables and 15.2 per cent were inspectors. Regarding years of service, 11.8 per cent had served for less than five years, 33.3 per cent had served between 5-10 years, 27.0 per cent between 11–15 years while 27.8 per cent had served for more than 15 years. These findings indicated that the majority of respondents possessed substantial operational experience relating to public order management and political transition-related deployments.

Deployment distribution indicated that 45.6 per cent of respondents were stationed in Mathare, 29.1 per cent in Kibera and 25.3 per cent in Mukuru. The deployment patterns demonstrated significant operational variation across the settlements with Mathare recording higher concentrations of security deployment associated with heightened protest activity and recurrent confrontational policing environments.

Qualitative findings established that Mathare experienced more confrontational policing conditions characterised by rapid escalation of force, heightened operational tension and adversarial police-community interactions. Kibera demonstrated mixed operational patterns combining coercive enforcement with negotiated engagement and periodic community collaboration. Mukuru reflected comparatively restrained policing approaches associated with lower levels of protest intensity and relatively stable police-community relations.

3.2 Police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts

The study established that police professionalism within Nairobi’s informal settlements remained moderate, uneven and spatially differentiated. The Police Professionalism Index (PPI) recorded an overall score of 46 per cent, indicating partial adherence to professional policing standards during political transition-related conflicts. Spatial variation was evident across the settlements with Mukuru recording the highest professionalism score at 55 per cent, followed by Kibera at 45 per cent while Mathare recorded the lowest score at 38 per cent.

3.1: Police professionalism during political transition conflicts

Table 3.1: Adherence to lawful procedures by police officers

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	11.8
Disagree	3
Neutral	6.3
Agree	13.5
Strongly Agree	65.4
Mean	4.18
Standard Deviation	1.37

Source: Researcher (2026)

The findings indicate a high level of perceived adherence to lawful procedures. A total of 65.4 per cent strongly agree and 13.5 per cent agree while 11.8 per cent strongly disagree and 3.0 per cent disagree. The mean score of 4.18 confirms strong overall agreement. The standard deviation of 1.37 indicates notable dispersion. This establishes a pattern of high aggregate compliance with observable variation across contexts.

Analytically this reflects aggregate compliance with situational variance. At system level officers appear to follow procedure. At interaction level deviations emerge. This pattern aligns with contemporary policing scholarship which shows that procedural justice is widely embedded in formal policing practice yet varies in application depending on context and pressure. Empirical work further demonstrates that officers’ behavior is shaped by perceived legitimacy and environmental conditions which influence how discretion is exercised in practice.

Spatial context intensifies this variation. Evidence indicates that policing behavior is conditioned by local environments and patterns of deployment. Studies on policing disparities show significant variation in police presence and conduct across neighborhoods which shapes how authority is exercised. This supports the finding that professionalism is unevenly distributed across informal settlements.

3.2 Officers demonstrated political neutrality during political transition conflicts

Table 3.2: Political neutrality of police officers

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	11.4
Disagree	3
Neutral	5.5
Agree	36.7
Strongly Agree	43.5
Mean	3.98
Standard Deviation	1.29

Source: Researcher (2026)

The survey findings show strong reported adherence to lawful procedures. A combined 78.9 per cent agree or strongly agree. The mean score of 4.18 confirms this positive pattern. However, the standard deviation of 1.37 and the 14.8 per cent dissenting responses show that procedural compliance is not uniform. The evidence therefore points to formal procedural compliance with uneven practical enforcement.

This pattern is corroborated by FGDs and KIIs. Police respondents present lawful procedure as the dominant operational norm. Community participants qualify this position. They acknowledge that some officers follow procedure but report that compliance weakens during politically charged protests crowd dispersal and rapid deployments. This confirms that professionalism is strongest under routine conditions but becomes less predictable under pressure.

The findings further showed that 57 per cent of respondents in Mathare reported frequent aggressive policing and disproportionate force during demonstrations compared to 48 per cent in Kibera and 34 per cent in Mukuru. Approximately 63 per cent of respondents indicated that legality and proportionality in the use of force were inconsistently applied during political protests while 59 per cent perceived police accountability mechanisms as weak during politically sensitive operations. In addition, 61 per cent of respondents identified strained police-community relations as a major factor undermining professionalism during political transitions.

3.3 Internal disciplinary mechanisms effectively addressed misconduct during election-related conflicts

Table 3.3:Effectiveness of internal disciplinary mechanisms

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	11.4
Disagree	4.2
Neutral	5.9
Agree	17.7
Strongly Agree	60.8
Mean	4.12
Standard Deviation	1.34

Source: Researcher (2026)

The results indicate a generally positive perception of internal disciplinary mechanisms. A total of 60.8 per cent strongly agree and 17.7 per cent agree while 11.4 per cent strongly disagree 4.2 per cent disagree and 5.9 per cent remain neutral. The mean score of 4.12 confirms high aggregate confidence. The standard deviation of 1.34 indicates dispersion. The pattern therefore reflects institutional confidence with observable variation in perceived effectiveness.Empirically this suggests that internal accountability structures are recognized as functional within the police system.

Documentary evidence supports this dual pattern. Internal accountability is formally anchored within the Internal Affairs Unit and supported by legal and policy frameworks under the 2010 Constitution of Kenya and the National Police Service Act 2011. These frameworks establish clear procedures for investigation and discipline. However, empirical studies show that internal systems operate within organizational cultures that discourage reporting and prioritize institutional cohesion.

The dissenting proportion of 24.3 per cent is therefore analytically significant. It reflects exposure to contexts where internal accountability does not translate into visible sanction or corrective action. Community based evidence indicates that perceptions of impunity persist particularly in informal settlements where enforcement is more coercive and less accountable. This aligns with findings that historical patterns of policing and institutional resistance to reform continue to shape accountability outcomes (Kituku 2024).

At the same time documentary evidence from recent electoral cycles indicates measurable improvement. Oversight reports show better organization coordination and restraint during the 2022 elections. This suggests that internal mechanisms can perform more effectively under conditions of heightened scrutiny and structured command oversight (IPOA 2022). The implication is that effectiveness is event dependent and visibility driven rather than consistently institutionalised.

Synthesis of the evidence yields a clear empirical position. Internal disciplinary mechanisms contribute to police professionalism at the formal level. However, their practical effectiveness is uneven. It is shaped by organisational culture political context and oversight exposure. Survey data capture institutional confidence. FGDs and KIIs reveal operational limitations. Documentary sources confirm both improvement and persistence of gaps. The overall conclusion is that internal accountability exists and functions but does not yet produce consistent outcomes across contexts particularly during politically sensitive operations.

3.4 Use of force during demonstrations followed established police guidelines

Table 3.4: Adherence to guidelines on use of force

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	11.4
Disagree	3.4
Neutral	6.3
Agree	27
Strongly Agree	51.9
Mean	4.04
Standard Deviation	1.34

Source: Researcher (2026)

The research results show that most survey participants believed police officers used force during protests according to their standard operating procedures because 51.9 percent of respondents showed strong agreement and 27.0 percent showed agreement. The majority of officers think that they use force according to current organizational rules and procedures. A substantial number of respondents disagreed with the statement because 11.4 percent showed strong disagreement while 3.4 percent showed regular disagreement which proves that force should not be used in specific situations. A small percentage of participants (6.3 per cent) chose to remain neutral because they held mixed or uncertain opinions. The average score of 4.04 indicates that people generally view their adherence to use-of-force guidelines positively yet they show slightly less agreement than complete agreement which means their compliance will not always occur. The first standard deviation of 1.34 indicates that people who answered the question showed moderate differences in their answers because their operational experiences depend on particular work situations.

3.5 Police officers received adequate training on conflict management

Table 3.5: Adequacy of training on conflict management

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	11.4
Disagree	3.4
Neutral	5.9
Agree	23.2
Strongly Agree	56.1
Mean	4.09
Standard Deviation	1.35

 Source: Researcher (2026)

The study findings demonstrate that most survey participants believed police officers had received sufficient training in conflict management skills which police officers needed to operate during political transitions. Most officers believed their training has prepared them to manage conflict during politically sensitive times according to this finding. The respondents showed a notable proportion of dissatisfaction because 11.4 per cent of them strongly disagreed while 3.4 per cent of them disagreed which showed that some officers required additional training according to their needs.

 3.3 Spatial socio-economic disparities and police professionalism

The findings established a strong relationship between spatial socio-economic inequalities and police professionalism within the informal settlements. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between spatial inequality and policing outcomes (r = 0.868, p < 0.05), indicating that operational environments characterised by poverty, infrastructural deficits and political marginalization significantly shaped policing conduct and accountability outcomes.

Regression analysis further identified spatial inequality as the strongest predictor of police professionalism (β = 0.52), compared to oversight effectiveness (β = 0.33) and collaborative policing mechanisms (β = 0.24). The regression model produced an R² value of 0.832 and an F-statistic of 367.25 (p < 0.001), demonstrating that the explanatory variables significantly accounted for variations in police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts.

Qualitative findings established that densely populated and economically marginalised settlements experienced more aggressive surveillance, intensified police deployments and coercive crowd-control strategies. Respondents particularly associated Mathare with confrontational policing linked to narrow settlement structures, high protest density and historical tensions between residents and security agencies.

3.4 Influence of civilian oversight on police professionalism

The study found that civilian oversight mechanisms positively influenced police professionalism and accountability during political transition-related conflicts. Oversight effectiveness scores were comparatively higher in Mukuru (61 per cent) followed by Kibera (53 per cent) and Mathare (46 per cent), indicating uneven accessibility and effectiveness of accountability mechanisms across the settlements.

Pearson correlation analysis demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between civilian oversight and police professionalism (r = 0.735, p < 0.05). The findings further indicated that respondents who reported higher visibility of oversight institutions also reported relatively improved perceptions regarding accountability, restraint and procedural conduct during policing operations. Approximately 58 per cent of respondents believed that civilian oversight institutions contributed positively toward improving police accountability while 64 per cent emphasised the importance of independent investigations into police misconduct during political transitions.

Qualitative findings established that oversight institutions played an important role in documenting abuses, facilitating accountability discussions and strengthening public confidence in policing reforms. However, respondents also identified delays in investigations, limited enforcement powers and inadequate institutional presence within informal settlements as constraints undermining oversight effectiveness.

3.5 Challenges and opportunities for police professionalism and civilian oversight

The study identified operational pressures, political interference, inadequate logistical resources, weak institutional coordination and command-driven deployments as major challenges affecting police professionalism during political transitions. Approximately 67 per cent of respondents identified political interference as a significant obstacle to professional policing while 54 per cent associated operational misconduct with inadequate training and crowd-management preparation. Additionally, 49 per cent of respondents linked confrontational policing to inadequate communication between police institutions and local communities during protests and demonstrations.

3.6 Coordination between police and civilian oversight institutions is effective

Table 3.6: Effectiveness of coordination

Response Category	Percentage ( per cent)
Strongly Disagree	16.9
Disagree	4.2
Neutral	10.5
Agree	19.8
Strongly Agree	48.5
Mean	3.79
Standard Deviation	1.44

Source: Researcher (2026)

The findings presented in Table 3.6 reveal a complex picture of institutional collaboration between police and civilian oversight institutions during political transition-related conflicts in Nairobi’s informal settlements. With 68.3 per cent of participants agreeing or strongly agreeing that coordination is effective (mean = 3.79, SD = 1.44), the data suggests a cautiously positive assessment from the majority. However, the substantial standard deviation and the 21.1 per cent who disagree indicate significant variability in experiences across different contexts and institutional interfaces.

Despite these challenges, the findings identified important opportunities for strengthening police professionalism and civilian oversight. Respondents emphasized the importance of continuous human rights training, scenario-based crowd management, de-escalation capacity building and enhanced institutional collaboration between police agencies and oversight actors. Approximately 72 per cent of respondents supported institutionalized police-community engagement frameworks while 69 per cent recommended strengthening oversight coordination and decentralized accountability mechanisms within informal settlements.

Summary of the findings

Summary of the Findings

The findings of the study were summarized as follows:

1. Police professionalism remained unevenly operationalized across informal settlements despite the existence of constitutional reforms, institutional policing frameworks and accountability mechanisms. The findings established that legality, accountability, proportionality and political neutrality were only partially embedded within operational policing practices. The Police Professionalism Index (PPI) score of 46 per cent, together with variations across Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru and differences between police self-assessments and community perceptions, demonstrated the existence of a significant institutional–operational gap in the implementation of professional policing standards.
2. Spatial and socio-economic inequalities significantly shaped policing behaviour, deployment patterns and accountability outcomes within informal settlements. The findings demonstrated that densely populated and socio-economically marginalised settlements experienced more coercive, reactive and enforcement-oriented policing practices compared to relatively stable settlement environments. Policing outcomes were therefore found to be spatially differentiated, with territorial marginalization, infrastructural deficits and poverty reinforcing uneven patterns of responsiveness, accountability and use of force.
3. Civilian oversight institutions functioned as important but constrained accountability mechanisms within the policing system. The findings established that oversight institutions contributed to police accountability through investigations, monitoring, public engagement and human rights enforcement. However, their effectiveness remained uneven due to limitations relating to accessibility, delayed investigations, weak enforcement of recommendations, institutional constraints and low public awareness. Consequently, oversight mechanisms improved accountability processes but did not consistently translate into sustained behavioural and operational change within policing institutions.
4. Coordination between police institutions, oversight bodies and communities remained fragmented and weakly institutionalized thereby limiting effective management of political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements. The findings established that absence of structured collaboration mechanisms weakened accountability, communication and conflict prevention efforts. Nevertheless, the study identified emerging opportunities for strengthening democratic policing through multi-agency coordination, community engagement, joint accountability initiatives and integrated conflict management frameworks within Nairobi’s informal settlements.

4.0 Interpretation of the findings

4.1 Police professionalism as a moderate and uneven practice

The findings demonstrate that police professionalism within Nairobi’s informal settlements remains partially institutionalized and unevenly operationalized despite constitutional reforms and institutional accountability frameworks. The moderate Police Professionalism Index (PPI) score of 46 per cent indicates that legality, accountability, proportionality and political neutrality exist formally within policing structures but are inconsistently translated into operational practice particularly during politically sensitive periods.

Variations across Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru further reveal that professionalism is shaped by operational pressure, settlement conditions, political contestation and police-community relations rather than functioning as a stable and uniformly applied institutional norm. The divergence between police self-assessments and community perceptions additionally demonstrates that professionalism remains contested and relational, with communities evaluating professionalism through fairness, restraint and legitimacy while police institutions often emphasize operational control and maintenance of order.

The findings therefore suggest that police professionalism within informal settlements reflects broader tensions between democratic policing ideals and coercive state security practices within marginalised urban environments.

4.2 Spatial inequality as a predictor of policing outcomes

The findings establish that spatial and socio-economic inequalities significantly shape policing behaviour, operational decision-making and accountability outcomes within informal settlements. Territorial marginalization, infrastructural deficits, congestion, poverty and uneven access to public services were found to reinforce more coercive, reactive and enforcement-oriented policing approaches particularly within highly marginalised settlements. The findings therefore demonstrate that policing outcomes are spatially produced rather than solely institutionally determined.

Informal settlements characterised by heightened socio-economic exclusion experienced intensified surveillance, rapid intervention and lower thresholds for use of force, indicating that policing institutions continue to perceive such spaces as inherently volatile and high-risk operational environments.

Consequently, professionalism within informal settlements cannot be understood independently from the broader structural inequalities and urban governance conditions shaping police-community interaction. The findings further reveal that differentiated policing reinforces unequal citizenship and weakens state legitimacy by positioning policing institutions as instruments of control rather than providers of public security and constitutional protection.

4.3 Civilian oversight as an accountability mechanism

The findings demonstrate that civilian oversight institutions contribute positively towards accountability, institutional transparency and professional conduct through investigations, monitoring and public engagement processes.

Oversight mechanisms therefore function as important accountability interfaces between policing institutions, the state and affected communities. However, the findings further establish that oversight effectiveness remains uneven and constrained by limited accessibility, delayed investigations, weak enforcement of recommendations, institutional fragmentation and low public awareness particularly within informal settlements.

Consequently, oversight institutions often function more effectively as reactive accountability mechanisms responding to incidents after occurrence rather than preventive systems capable of consistently shaping operational behaviour and institutional culture. The findings additionally reveal that oversight effectiveness depends significantly on institutional coordination, community participation and public legitimacy, indicating that accountability within informal settlements operates as a relational and negotiated governance process rather than a purely institutional function. More fundamentally, the findings demonstrate that sustainable peace and effective conflict management during political transitions depend significantly on the legitimacy, accountability and professionalism of state security institutions within marginalised urban environments.

4.4 Challenges and opportunities shaping police–oversight collaboration

The findings reveal that coordination between police institutions, oversight bodies and communities remains fragmented and weakly institutionalised thereby undermining effective conflict management and accountability processes within informal settlements. Weak inter-institutional coordination, political interference, resource limitations, delayed communication processes and operational constraints collectively weakened collaborative policing and oversight effectiveness. Institutional distrust and adversarial police-community relations further limited reporting, accountability participation and implementation of oversight processes particularly within politically volatile settlements.

Nevertheless, the findings identified significant opportunities for strengthening democratic policing through integrated and community-responsive governance approaches. Community engagement structures, civil society participation, faith-based mediation initiatives, joint training programmes, integrated early warning systems and collaborative accountability mechanisms emerged as important platforms capable of improving communication, institutional trust, operational responsiveness and public legitimacy. The findings therefore suggest that sustainable management of political transition-related conflicts requires transition from fragmented and reactive governance approaches toward integrated, preventive and context-sensitive policing systems grounded in collaboration, accountability and community participation.

5.0 Conclusion

The study concluded that:

1. Police professionalism positively influences the management of political transition-related conflicts through legality, accountability, restraint and police-community engagement. However, professionalism remained unevenly operationalized across informal settlements due to operational pressures, political contestation, command dynamics and reactive policing practices particularly during protests and demonstrations.
2. Spatial and socio-economic inequalities significantly shape policing behaviour, deployment patterns and accountability outcomes within informal settlements. Densely populated and socio-economically marginalised settlements experienced more coercive, enforcement-oriented and confrontational policing approaches, demonstrating that police professionalism is structurally conditioned by territorial and socio-spatial realities rather than institutional regulations alone.
3. Civilian oversight institutions play an important but uneven role in promoting police professionalism and accountability through investigations, monitoring and human rights enforcement. Nevertheless, institutional limitations including weak enforcement capacity, delayed investigations, limited accessibility and low public awareness constrained their ability to consistently influence police conduct and operational culture within informal settlements.
4. Weak coordination and fragmented engagement between police institutions, oversight bodies and communities undermined effective conflict management within informal settlements. However, strengthened multi-agency collaboration, community engagement, integrated accountability systems and context-sensitive policing frameworks present significant opportunities for improving democratic policing and conflict management outcomes during political transitions.

6.0 Recommendations

The study recommends:

1. The National Police Service and the National Police Service Commission should institutionalize mandatory scenario-based training, continuous professional certification and technology-supported operational monitoring systems including body-worn cameras and digital incident reporting in order to strengthen legality, proportionality, political neutrality and accountability in policing practices within informal settlements.
2. The Ministry of Interior and National Administration and county security agencies should adopt spatially responsive policing models supported by GIS-based conflict mapping, predictive risk assessment and equitable deployment of personnel and logistical resources to address socio-economic disparities and reduce enforcement-heavy policing within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru.
3. The Independent Policing Oversight Authority and the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights should strengthen oversight effectiveness through decentralized reporting centres, integrated digital complaint-tracking systems, legally enforceable investigation timelines and community-based civic awareness programmes in order to improve accessibility, responsiveness and public trust in accountability processes.
4. Multi-agency collaboration frameworks involving police institutions, oversight bodies, the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission, civil society organizations, faith-based organizations, research institutions and community leadership structures should be institutionalized to support early warning systems, coordinated conflict prevention, digital civic engagement and adoption of the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) as a long-term monitoring and evaluation framework for democratic policing within informal settlements.

The overall conclusion is that management of political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements is fundamentally shaped by the interaction between police professionalism, civilian oversight and socio-spatial inequalities. The study further established that the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) provides a measurable, multidimensional and context-sensitive framework for assessing police professionalism and contributes to evidence-based policing reforms, democratic accountability and conflict-responsive governance within marginalised urban environments.

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About the Author

Peter Wasswa Mulesi,

(Candidate and Researcher)

PhD, Peace and Conflict Studies

Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, Masinde Muliro

University of Science and Technology (MMUST)

mulesipeter@gmail.com

+254 727544134

Prof. Kennedy Onkware,

Department of Emergency Management,

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology (MMUST)

(Supervisor)