In 2011, I wrote an article titled ‘Security in the Nie Basin in the 21st Century: From Military Security to Environmental Security’, which was published by Abeto Publishers in a book Peace in Uganda: The Role of Civil Society edited by Professor S.A. Abidi. 

Prior to that, I had in 2008, I had written the following articles:

‘Nile Basin Discourse: Climate Change Adaptation and Transboundary River Basin Management. -The View from and NG’ that was published in 2008 in a book by the title Towards Climate Change Adaptation: Building Adaptive Capacity in Managing African Transboundary River Basins” by Petermann Thomas and published by InWEnt, Zschortau, Germany.

Environmental Governance in the Nile Basin: the Case of Uganda, which in 2008,  was included in The Proceedings of Nile Basin Development: Environment and Water Resources Development for Peace and Cooperation in the Nile Basin published by Nile Basin Initiative (publisher), Entebbe, Uganda.

I wrote these articles when I was the topmost civil society leader in the Nile Basin region of Africa at the time as the chairman of the Nile Basin Discourse (NBD), a regional NGO for 10 (i.e. Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, now a grouping of 11 countries, including South Sudan).

Although I may not have explicitly mentioned the concepts in the title of this article, my interest and concern were contributing to knowledge, wisdom, understanding and insights on climate justice, environmental justice, environmental peace, environmental cooperation and environmental diplomacy in the Nile Basin. Samar Hassan Albagoury and Eraqui Alsherbeny (2015) do not mention my pioneering 2011 article on environmental security, but I was the first in the Nile basin to address environmental security. There is no doubt that continuing armed conflict in the region erode environmental security in the region.

In May 2023, I wrote an article Does Environmental Justice Matter Anymore in Uganda? that was published in The Kampala Report. Later, in October 2023, I was invited to deliver a keynote address during a Zoom meeting in Nairobi, Kenya, on ‘Public Diplomacy: The Role of Non-State Actors in Promoting Transboundary Water Cooperation’.

Therefore, I have had a long engagement with various aspects if environmental concern as a teacher and professional practitioner. In this article, I want to unite climate justice, environmental justice, environmental cooperation, environmental peace and environmental diplomacy in one spectrum of thinking and reasoning on environmental security.

The thesis statement of the article

Environmental security building in the Nile Basin requires unity of climate justice, environmental justice, environmental cooperation, environmental peace and environmental diplomacy.

Let me first explain the concepts in the title of my article.

Justice

There are many types of justice, that are often violated by humanity organised or not organised. When justice is violated, the result is injustice. Sometimes instead of institutionalising justice, governments end up institutionalising injustice to ensure political survival and power retention at all costs. Michelle Maiese and Heidi Burgess (2020) have listed the types of justice. Originally the list was developed and published by Michelle Maiese (2003) and updated by Heidi Burgess (2013). They mention the following types of justice:

• Distributive (or economic justice, which is concerned with giving all members of society a “fair share” of the benefits and resources available
• Procedural justice, which is concerned with making and implementing decisions according to fair processes that ensure “fair treatment.”
• Retributive justice, which appeals to the notion of “just desert” – the idea that people deserve to be treated in the same way they treat others
• Restorative justice, which focuses on violations as crimes against humanity.
• Legal justice, which is the application of the more fundamental notion of “social justice” to legal rules and decisions or is not a matter of justice at all.
• Criminal justice, which seeks to deter future crimes by creating penalties for criminal conduct and rehabilitate criminals through incarceration
• Political justice, which refers to the principles and forms of justice that are specific to the political sphere, including the distribution of resources, the establishment of principles, the conduct of trials, and the emergence of justice within political communities.
• Interactional justice, which is defined by sociologist John R. Schermerhorn as the degree to which the people affected by a decision are treated by dignity and respect.
• Social justice, which is the view that everyone deserves equal economic, political and social rights and opportunities
• Corrective justice, which is the idea that liability rectifies the injustice inflicted by one person on another.

Surprisingly, Michelle Maiese and Heidi Burgess (2020) did not mention natural justice, climate justice, environmental justice, which have become integral to justice discussions globally. Few people in the 21st century have not heard of natural justice, climate justice and environmental justice, environmental cooperation, environmental peace and environmental diplomacy, most likely because they conceived justice in legal terms only.

If the right to the 10 types of justice they mentioned exist, the right to natural justice, climate justice, environmental justice, environmental cooperation, environmental peace and environmental diplomacy also exists. Let me briefly discourse on each of the five concepts mentioned in the title of my article and which I want to unite in one spectrum of thinking and reasoning towards building meaningful and effective environmental security.

Climate Justice

Climate justice links human rights and development to achieve a human-centred approach, safeguarding the rights of the most vulnerable people and sharing the burdens and benefits of climate change and its impacts equitably and fairly. Climate justice is informed by science, responds to science and acknowledges the need for equitable stewardship of the world’s resources.

Climate justice’ as a concept recognises that, although global warming is a global crisis, its effects are not felt evenly around the world. In particular, climate justice recognises the disproportionate impacts of climate change on low-income countries and communities and places least responsible for the problem of climate changer around the world. It seeks solutions that address the root causes of climate change in doing so, simultaneously address a broad range of social, ecological, and environmental injustices. These solutions are frequently organised into four pillars of climate justice (Boyce, 2019). These are: Action, Adaptation for all, Co-benefits and dividends.

On the other hand, the 7 principles of climate justice are often stated as:

• Respect and protect human rights
• Support the right to development
• Share burdens and benefits equitably
• Ensure that decisions on climate change are participatory, transparent and accountable
• Highlight gender equality and equity
• Harness the transformative power of education for climate stewardship
• Use Effective partnerships to secure climate justice

However, in many countries, both developed and underdeveloped, climate justice has not been the centrepiece of climate policy initiatives the United States. All too often, what is right has been subordinated to what is deemed politically expedient (e.g., Boyce, 2019).

As a conservation biologist, environmentalist, environmental educator, environmental crusader and non-governmental organisation(s) leader, my interest and focus on climate change and climate justice mushroomed over the last 50 or so years.

Environmental justice

Environmental justice serves as a lens through which social justice principles can be incorporated into the realm of fair sustainability. On the other hand, climate justice promotes an urgent action needed to prevent climate change must be based on community-led solutions around the world.

There is a total of 17 principles of environmental justice. The principles of environmental justice include to: Increasing ecological protection and safety within disadvantaged communities; expanding cultural awareness and address potential language barriers; and promoting environmental education.

Environmental Peace

Environmental peacebuilding can be broadly defined as efforts to build more peaceful relations through conflict prevention, resolution and recovery processes that integrate the management of environmental issues. As an overarching framework, environmental peacebuilding includes both the environmental dimensions of peacebuilding and the peace dimensions of sustainable development. It also considers an array of environmental issues that range from managing specific natural resources to protecting the global climate and oceans.

Principles from environmental peace include:

• Think fast, think ahead, act now – establishing an environment of peace needs both far sighted vision and immediate action.
• Cooperate to survive and thrive – a new era of risk demands a new mode of cooperation between governments and others.
• Expect the unexpected, be prepared to adapt – the risk landscape will evolve, so responses need to be flexible and adaptive.
• A just and peaceful transition will succeed – moving to environmentally benign models of energy and land use must not exacerbate insecurity.
• y everyone, for everyone – inclusive processes that involve everyone affected will produce better and fairer outcomes.

The following recommendations have been advanced by The Environment of Peace Initiative for an environment of peace:

Address the linked crises with joint solutions: 1. Identify and implement measures that build both peace and environmental integrity. 2. Invest in preparedness and resilience – build capacity to detect signs of growing threats and defuse tensions. 3 Finance peace, not risk – meet international funding obligations, end conflict subsidies, place funds where they are most needed. 4. Deliver a just and peaceful transition -assess possible negative outcomes of pro-environment measures before implementation. 5. Be deliberately inclusive – involve marginalised groups fully in decision making and share the benefits. 6. Educate, inform, research, understand and communicate the risks, build cooperation through education.

Environmental Cooperation

Environmental cooperation is working together to strengthen environmental protection, improve the environmental performance of the private sector and promote public participation for environmental decision-making. It may be pursued at the local, national, subregional, regional and global levels.

According to the gef.org the following are the principles of environmental cooperation.

• Cooperating agencies must commit themselves to integrating environment and development
• Commit adequate funds to meet agreed costs of environmental cooperation
• UNEP, GEF, multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies and programs, other international institutions, national institutions and bilateral development agencies, local communities, non-governmental organizations, the private sector and the academic community must all be involved in the cooperation.
• The three agencies recognize the need for institutional arrangements in conformity with, and providing input to the fulfilment of, GEF objectives, based on a results-oriented approach and in a spirit of partnership, and consistent with the principles of universality, democracy, transparency, cost-effectiveness and accountability.
• The Implementing Agencies will put these principles into practice by ensuring the development and implementation of programs and projects which are country-driven and based on national priorities designed to support sustainable development. Actions needed to attain
• In developing joint work programmes and in project preparation, the Implementing Agencies will, through country-driven initiatives, collaborate with eligible countries in the identification of projects for GEF funding through a jointly operated Project Preparation Assistance Program. Priority will be given to integrating global environmental concerns with national ones in the framework of national sustainable development strategies.
• The Implementing Agencies will ensure the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of their activities in addressing the targeted global environmental issues. In this context, one important feature of adhering to these principles is that the least-cost sustainable means of meeting many global environmental objectives lie in a combination of investment, technical assistance, and policy actions at the national and regional level. The experience and mandate of each Implementing Agency will contribute to bringing to light, when assessing specific project interventions, the range of possible policy, technical assistance and investment options. In addition, each Implementing Agency will strive to promote measures to achieve global environmental benefits within the context of its regular work programs.
• The Implementing Agencies are committed to facilitating continued effective participation, as appropriate, of major groups and local communities and to promoting opportunities for mobilizing outside resources in support of GEF activities. 9. Collaboration among the Implementing Agencies will be sufficiently flexible to promote introduction of modifications as the need arises. Within an overall cooperative framework, the Implementing Agencies will strive for innovative approaches to strengthening their collaboration and effectiveness, in particular at the country level, and an efficient division of labour that maximizes the synergy among them and recognizes their terms of reference and comparative advantages.
• The Implementing Agencies recognize that in carrying out their responsibilities there will be areas of shared interest and work effort focusing primarily on the integration of GEF objectives and activities with national sustainable development strategies. In addition to collaboration in promoting an efficient and effective response to issues of shared interest, the agencies’ partnership will recognize distinctive areas of emphasis.

Environmental Diplomacy     

Environmental diplomacy refers to the use of diplomacy and international cooperation to address global environmental challenges, such as climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution. We can look at it as the use of international cooperation and diplomacy to address global environmental issues. It can involve: negotiating treaties, resolving environmental disputes, preventing conflicts over natural resources, promoting sustainable land use practices and ensuring access to clean water and air.

Thus the concept of environmental diplomacy appears associated with events (conventions) promoted between states and transnational organisations to discuss aspects related to regulating the use of natural resources and regulating pollution (Sonia Pedro Sebastiao and Isabel Soares, 2023).

The roots of environmental diplomacy lie in the United Nations (UN) Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, the UN’s first summit on environmental issues. Here, diplomatic representatives deliberated for 11 days, eventually producing a document of 26 principles, each corresponding to a different environmental issue. For the first time, governments were charged with environmental management on a large diplomatic scale. Stockholm marked a revolution in environmental policy by charging world leaders to consider future generations when building, buying, and developing, thereby treating the world’s resources as shared assets belonging to all humanity. 

Environmental diplomacy involves negotiations, treaties and other forms of cooperation among countries to develop and implement policies that promote sustainable development and protect the environment. This can include efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, protect endangered species and ecosystems, promote sustainable land use practices, and ensure access to clean water and air.

One of the most prominent examples of environmental diplomacy is the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international treaty that aims to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system. The UNFCCC has led to a series of international agreements, including the Paris Agreement, which sets out goals for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and limiting global warming.

Environmental diplomacy also involves the use of diplomacy to resolve environmental disputes and prevent conflicts over natural resources. For example, countries may use diplomatic channels to resolve disputes over water rights or fishing rights, or to negotiate agreements to prevent pollution from crossing borders.

Overall, environmental diplomacy plays a critical role in addressing global environmental challenges and promoting sustainable development. By working together to develop and implement effective policies, countries can build a more sustainable future for all.

Environmental diplomacy promotes engagement between different communities by encouraging a holistic approach to environmental stewardship. Due to this issue’s wide-reaching nature, it requires state and non-state actors from every corner of the globe to unite in the diplomatic process.  

Furthermore, environmental diplomacy is unique in its obligatory nature. Governments simply must coordinate to combat the environmental threats facing society. The risks are too great to fall short on this issue. Environmental degradation would be disastrous for our world. From lives lost due to drought and famine to general halted economic activity, the issues that the climate crisis stands to worsen result in environmental diplomacy’s heightened importance.  

At least five major factors distinguish the new environmental diplomacy: (1) the nature of the subject matter; (2) the role of science and scientists; (3) the complexity of the negotiations; (4) the unique equity issues involved; and (5) innovative features and approaches.

In my article ‘Does Environmental Justice Matter Anymore in Uganda?’ I stated that ecological integrity and environmental integrity are being eroded. In the process the environmental security and environmental justice of people, communities and other beings are being mercilessly eroded. The future environmental survival of humans and other being is in jeopardy. All this is happening when the powers that be in the Nile Basin in general and Uganda in particular take military approach to security as the supreme way to ensure.

Towards building environmental security in the Nile Basin

Environmental security is one of the most important conditions for human security. Yet currently, most people are living in environmentally insecure conditions – that is, exposed and experiencing environmental violence (Richard Marcantonio, 2024). It is multidimensional and includes cultural society, moral security, spiritual security, community security, ecological security, land security, food security, sociopolitical security, socio-economic security, energy security, water security, climate security and geopolitical security. Human security in its various forms requires environmental security.

There are four dimensions of environmental security:

• Ecosystem goods and services, which fundamentally underpin human well-being and human security.
• Conflict, which affects the viability or sustainability of investments in environmental protection and their outcomes regardless of its source.
• Ecosystem degradation, resource competition, or inequitable distribution of benefits can increase vulnerability and conflict risk.
• Environmental cooperation can increase capacity for conflict management, prevention and recovery.

If one surveys the literature on environmental security, one notices an avalanche of literature. In the portion “Further Reading, I list many useful resources, which interested readers may want to consult to enhance their knowledge, wisdom, understanding and insight on the increasingly important concept of Environmental Security.

All I want to emphasise here is that environmental security to be meaningful and effective everywhere in the Nile Basin natural justice, climate justice, environmental justice, environmental cooperation and environmental diplomacy must be pursued as essential elements of environmental security in its diverse dimensions, namely: cultural security, moral security, mental security, psychological security, spiritual security, community security, ecological security, food security, sociopolitical security, socioeconomic security, energy security, water security, climate security and geopolitical security.

Unfortunately, continued pursuit of security in the narrow sense of military security is distorting environmental security incrementally.  This is why in 2011 I wrote an article ‘Security in the Nile Basin: From Military to Environmental Security’. Since then others have also addressed the environmental security issue (e.g. Kingoina, 2012; Mudaki, 2012; Tesfaye, 2012 and Samar Hassan Albagoury and Eraqui Alsherbeny, 2015).  However, while the Nile Basin Initiative now takes environmental security seriously, this is not the case in the individual member countries of the Nile Basin Discourse (NBD) and Nile Basin Initiative (NBI). Armed conflicts inspired by commitment to military or physical security, continue to periodically sprout in the Nile Basin, thereby compromising environmental security at very high human life, social, ecological and financial cost.

Mudaki (2012) advanced environmental diplomacy as a tool to enhance the prospects of human security in the Nile Basin. I agree it is, but it is also a tool to enhance the prospects of environmental security. However, it is effective if the enhancement of the prospects of environmental security is achieved concurrently with climate justice, environmental justice, environmental cooperation and environmental peace. As tools for environmental security building. Effective environmental security planning and design must use all these tools to identify the sources of environmental conflicts that undermine environmental security.

Ultimately the aim should be to prevent environmental violence on a continuous basis. We must all understand and recognize environmental violence as a pernicious and prolific form of human-caused suffering (Richard Marcantonio, 2024). Pursuit of physical or military security instead of environmental security, will continue to generate environmental violence and to undermine the tools of environmental security. Every member country of the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) or Nile Basin Discourse (NBD)must mist develop an environmental security strategic plan as an undertaking by both state and non-state actors. The strategic plan must identify, analyse and respond to emerging environmental threats in source, transit and destination areas across the supply and consumption chain.

It is time for state and nonstate actors to collaborate effectively on building environmental security for prosperity and posterity. There is no doubt that environmental security concepts are shaping the contours of global [and regional] environmental governance (e.g., Liebenguth, 2022). They must begin to be seen shaping the contours of national environmental governance as well. Later will be too late.

Further reading

Aaron Tesfaye (2012). Environmental Security, Regime Building and International Law in the Nile Basin.Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines Vol. 46, No. 2 (August 2012), pp. 271-287 (17 pages) Published By: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.

Afunaduula Isaac and Oweyegha-Afunaduula Fred Charles (2005). The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Uganda. Paper at Conference on “Cultural and spiritual dimensions of the Struggle for Environmental Justice in Uganda at Kampala, July 2005. ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337361618_the_struggle_for_environmental_justice_in_uganda visited on October 26, 2024 at 12.16pm eat

Barnard, E., Johnson, L. K., & Porter, J. (2021). Environmental security intelligence: the role of US intelligence agencies and science advisory groups in anticipating climate security threats. Journal of Intelligence History, 22(3), 435–450. https://doi.org/10.1080/16161262.2021.2021687 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/16161262.2021.2021687 Visited on 1 November 2024 at 15.18 pm EAT

Boyce J, ed. Four Pillars of Climate Justice. In: Economics for People and the Planet: Inequality in the Era of Climate Change. Anthem Press; 2019:105-106. Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2019

Braden R. Allenby (2000). Environmental Security: Concept and Implementation. International Political Science Review / Revue internationale de science politique Vol. 21, No. 1 (Jan., 2000), pp. 5-21 (17 pages) Published By: Sage Publications, Ltd.

Conflict and Environment Observatory (2018). Civil Society Marks UN’s EnvConflictDay 2018 by Urging Governments to Move Further and Faster on Environmental Security. November 6, 2018 https://ceobs.org/ngos-and-experts-human-security-requires-environmental-security-envconflictday/ Visited on 30 October 2024 at 20.26pm EAT.

Dereje Zeleke Mekonnen, The Nile Basin Cooperative Framework Agreement Negotiations and the Adoption of a ‘Water Security’ Paradigm: Flight into Obscurity or a Logical Cul-de-sac?, European Journal of International Law, Volume 21, Issue 2, May 2010, Pages 421–440, https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chq027 https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article/21/2/421/374199 Visited on 31 November 2024 at 12.32 pm EAT

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Ernest J. Weinrib (2002). Corrective Justice in a Nutshell. The University of Toronto Law Journal Vol, pp. 349-356 (8 pages). Published By: University of Toronto Press

Foundation for Environmental Security and Sustainability (2006). Uganda’s Fading Lustre: Environmental Security in the Pearl of Africa. https://www.fess-global.org/Publications/Other/uganda_esaf_full_report.pdf Visited on 30 October 2024bat 19.56 pm EAT.

Francesca Merlo (2024).  A Life of Diplomacy and Environmental Justice, Advocating for Soil Worldwide. Vatican News, 21 May 2024 https://www.vaticannews.va/en/world/news/2024-05/penelope-wensley-interview-soil-science-australia-diplomacy.html Visited on 1 November 2024 at 17.8 pm EAT

Gregory D. Foster (2001). Environmental Security: The Search for Strategic Legitimacy. Armed Forces & Society Vol. 27, No. 3 (Spring 2001), pp. 373-395 (23 pages) Published By: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Isaac Afunaduula and Oweyegha-Afunaduula (2019). The Struggle for Environmental Justice in Uganda. Article at Conference “Cultural and spiritual dimensions of the Struggle for Environmental Justice in Uganda”. At: Kampala, Uganda

Julianne Liebenguth (2022). Environmental Security as a source of non-state legitimacy: an analysis of corporate governance. Earth System Governance Volume 11, January 2022, 100133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2022.100133 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589811622000027 Visited on 30 0ctober 2024 at 20.49pm EAT.

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