Institutional coordination and collaboration between police and civilian oversight institutions presents Kenya with best chance of preventing political transition-related conflicts in urban informal settlements, the latest study in electoral violence shows.
The study takes into account under-governance and under-policing in informal settlements that are mushrooming in the capital Nairobi as a mirror of what obtains in major towns in Kenya – Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru and Kakamega.
It also examines spatial disparities and intensity of the violence.
The research findings in Nairobi’s Mathare, Mukuru-kwa-Njenga and Kibera slums, which were epicentres of post-election transition conflicts in 2002, 2007, 2013, 2017 and 2022 presidential elections, are tagged as political and ethnic flashpoints. The study also reveals serious under-equipment of police and a dearth of knowledge to enable law enforcers to handle such political eruptions without resulting in death.
Mr Peter Wawa Mulesi, a doctoral candidate at Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology (MMUST) says that his findings will be instrumental in mapping potential flashpoints, act an early warning system of what to expect in 2027 and suggest rapid response to prevent escalation of bloodbath.
“Qualitative findings established that densely populated and economically marginalised settlements experienced more aggressive surveillance, intensified police deployments and coercive crowd-control strategies. Respondents particularly associated Mathare with confrontational policing linked to narrow settlement structures, high protest density and historical tensions between residents and security agencies.”
More curiously, the police deployed informal settlements have low levels education, hence bereft of capacity to humanely manage crowds and stem violent confrontations – be it political, ethnic, social or economic, the study demonstrates with quantitative and qualitative data.
In ‘Problem Statement’ Mulesi’s dissertation says, “Although the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and subsequent police reforms introduced civilian oversight institutions and emphasised professionalism, accountability and human rights compliance, subsequent political transitions continued to elicit allegations of police brutality, disproportionate force, arbitrary arrests and uneven law enforcement – particularly during protests and post-election demonstrations…”
More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests between 2024 and 2025 further exposed persistent challenges relating to crowd management, operational constraints and police-community relations within politically volatile urban environments, according to the research findings.
The study sets out to establish the extent to which police officers adhere to professional policing standards in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements. It looks at how spatial and socio-economic disparities influence police professionalism during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements.
The study also assessed the influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism and accountability during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements. It delved into the challenges and opportunities shaping collaboration between police institutions and civilian oversight institutions in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements.
The study also identifies operational pressures, political interference, inadequate logistical resources, weak institutional coordination and command-driven deployments as major challenges affecting police professionalism during political transitions.
Tell Media will serialise the findings, starting with the generalisations:
Police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts in Nairobi’s informal settlements, Kenya
Peter Wasswa Mulesi¹, Prof Kennedy Onkware² and Dr George Lutomia, PhD³
¹ Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, Masindi Muliro University of Science and Technology (MMUST)
² Department of Emergency Management Studies, MMUST
³ Department of Peace and Conflict Studies, MMUST
Abstract
Globally, political transition periods frequently generate tensions between security institutions and civilian populations particularly within marginalised urban environments. Across Africa and, in particular East Africa, concerns regarding excessive use of force politicised policing weak accountability and strained police-community relations continue to characterise democratic transitions. These challenges remain evident in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga kwa Njenga informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya where poverty socio-economic exclusion political mobilisation and weak institutional presence complicate policing and conflict management during political transitions. Despite constitutional reforms and the establishment of civilian oversight institutions concerns regarding coercive policing uneven accountability and weak oversight coordination persist.
This study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts in Nairobi’s informal settlements. The study assessed police adherence to legality proportionality, accountability, political neutrality and ethical policing while examining the influence of spatial disparities and civilian oversight on policing outcomes.
The study introduced the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) as a democratic policing framework for assessing legality accountability restraint operational conduct and public trust beyond conventional crime-centred indicators.
The study was anchored on Social Contract Theory Regime Theory and Conflict Transformation Theory and adopted a mixed-methods research design grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms. Quantitative data were collected through structured questionnaires while qualitative data were generated through Key Informant Interviews Focus Group Discussions and documentary review. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics while qualitative data were analysed thematically.
The findings established that police professionalism remained moderate uneven and spatially differentiated across the settlements. The overall PPI score was 46% with Mukuru-kwa-Njenga recording 55% Kibera 45% and Mathare 38%. Spatial inequality demonstrated a strong statistically significant relationship with policing outcomes (r = 0.868, p < 0.05) and emerged as the strongest predictor of police professionalism (β = 0.52). Civilian oversight similarly demonstrated a significant positive relationship with police professionalism (r = 0.735, p < 0.05) although its effectiveness remained constrained by delayed investigations, weak enforcement capacity and fragmented coordination. Qualitative findings further revealed that political interference, operational pressures and socio-economic marginalisation contributed to coercive policing practices particularly within highly marginalised settlements.
The study concludes that effective management of political transition-related conflicts requires spatially responsive policing strengthened civilian oversight institutional accountability and continuous professional training grounded in procedural justice democratic policing and de-escalation principles. The study recommends decentralisation of oversight services mandatory professional training and strengthened collaborative accountability frameworks linking police institutions civilian oversight agencies community organisations and faith-based actors.
Keywords: Police professionalism, Police Professionalism Index (PPI), civilian oversight, political transition-related conflicts, informal settlements, accountability, Nairobi County, Kenya.Top of Form
Bottom of Form
1.0 Introduction and background to the study
Globally, political transition periods are frequently associated with insecurity social unrest and contestation over state legitimacy particularly within informal settlements characterised by poverty socio-economic exclusion and weak state presence (UN-Habitat, 2022; OECD, 2021). During such periods police institutions become central actors in the management of demonstrations electoral tensions and politically motivated violence. Consequently, police conduct increasingly functions as a critical measure of democratic governance legitimacy and accountability (Bayley, 2020; Manning, 2021).
Contemporary policing scholarship identifies professionalism, accountability, legality, restraint and political neutrality as essential foundations of democratic policing (Tyler, 2021; Stone & Travis, 2011). However, weak professionalism often contributes to excessive use of force arbitrary arrests suppression of dissent and deteriorating police-community relations particularly during politically sensitive periods (Amnesty International, 2023; Human Rights Watch, 2022). This has generated increasing emphasis on democratic and rights-based policing frameworks grounded in procedural justice transparency proportionality and citizen-centred service delivery (Loader & Walker, 2021; Manning, 2021). Within this shift policing is no longer assessed solely through crime rates arrest statistics or response times which inadequately capture accountability fairness and public trust (Moore, 2013; Maguire, 2003). Consequently, policing scholarship increasingly advocates legitimacy-centred frameworks such as the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) which evaluates policing through legality accountability proportionality political neutrality operational restraint ethical conduct and public trust.
Across Africa policing institutions continue to experience challenges associated with colonial policing legacies politicisation weak accountability systems and regime-centred security orientations (Aning & Edu-Afful, 2023; Baker, 2021). Despite post-independence reforms many African states continue to experience militarised policing selective law enforcement and excessive use of force during elections protests and politically contested transitions (Hills, 2021; Onkware, 2020).
Within the East African Community police institutions in Uganda Tanzania and Kenya have repeatedly faced criticism regarding suppression of opposition mobilisation disproportionate force and weak civilian accountability during electoral periods (Freedom House, 2024; International Crisis Group, 2022).
In Kenya political transition-related conflicts have consistently tested the professionalism neutrality and accountability of policing institutions. The colonial origins of policing were historically associated with coercive control suppression of resistance and protection of regime interests thereby embedding authoritarian policing cultures within the post-colonial state (Branch, 2020; Anderson, 2021). Informal settlements increasingly became securitized spaces characterised by aggressive surveillance coercive crowd control and strained police-community relations (Murunga, 2021; Nasong’o, 2020).
The 2007-2008 post-election violence represented a major turning point in policing and democratic governance in Kenya. The Waki Commission and Kriegler Commission established that police institutions were directly implicated in excessive use of force unlawful killings operational failures politicised deployments and weak accountability during the violence (Waki Commission, 2008; Kriegler Commission, 2008). Reports by the Kenya National Commission on Human Rights further documented widespread human rights violations including arbitrary arrests disappearances and disproportionate force by security agencies (KNCHR, 2021).
The gravity of police involvement was further reflected in proceedings before the International Criminal Court at The Hague where senior state and security officials – including former police chief, Police Commissioner Major General Hussein Ali – were linked to failures in managing post-election violence and protecting civilians during the crisis. These developments placed police professionalism accountability and operational responsibility at the centre of debates on political transition-related conflict management in Kenya.
The post-2008 reform period consequently generated significant institutional restructuring through the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and establishment of oversight institutions, including the Independent Policing Oversight Authority (IPOA) and the National Police Service Commission (NPSC). Article 244 of the Constitution emphasises professionalism, accountability, discipline, transparency and compliance with human rights standards within the National Police Service (IPOA, 2023; NPSC, 2022). Despite these reforms subsequent electoral periods including 2013, 2017 and 2022 continued to reveal concerns regarding police brutality disproportionate force political interference and uneven implementation of reforms particularly within informal settlements characterised by socio-economic marginalisation and intense political mobilisation (Amnesty International, 2023; Human Rights Watch, 2024; Onkware & Lutomia, 2024).
More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests – including the 2024-2025 Gen Z demonstrations – further exposed limitations of conventional command-and-control policing approaches within decentralised protest environments (Kimokoti, 2021; International Crisis Group, 2024).
These tensions remain particularly evident within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga informal settlements in Nairobi County. The settlements are characterised by high population density unemployment infrastructural deficits poverty and adversarial police-community relations which collectively shape policing outcomes during political transitions (UN-Habitat, 2022; Wacquant, 2023). Studies by Murunga Nasong’o and Onkware demonstrate that informal settlements have historically functioned as spaces of political contestation securitisation and uneven state presence where policing reflects broader structural inequalities and regime security priorities (Murunga, 2021; Nasong’o, 2020; Onkware, 2020).
The study was anchored on Social Contract Theory Regime Theory and Conflict Transformation Theory and grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms. It focused on Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga informal settlements and examined police professionalism, civilian oversight, spatial disparities, accountability, mechanisms and police-community relations during political transition-related conflicts in Kenya. Despite constitutional reforms and institutional restructuring concerns regarding coercive policing weak oversight coordination and uneven professionalism persists particularly within marginalised informal settlements. Consequently, the study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in managing political transition-related conflicts within Nairobi’s informal settlements, Kenya.
1.1 Problem statement
Political transitions in Kenya, particularly the elections of 2007, 2013, 2017 and 2022 have repeatedly generated protests, electoral disputes and violent contestation over state legitimacy thereby placing police institutions at the centre of conflict management and public order maintenance. The 2007-2008 post-election violence exposed major institutional weaknesses within the police service, including excessive use of force politicised and ethicised deployments, operational failures and weak accountability mechanisms (Waki Commission, 2008; KNCHR, 2021).
Although the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and subsequent police reforms introduced civilian oversight institutions and emphasised professionalism accountability and human rights compliance, subsequent political transitions continued to attract allegations of police brutality disproportionate force arbitrary arrests and uneven law enforcement particularly during protests and post-election demonstrations (Amnesty International, 2017; Human Rights Watch, 2022; IPOA, 2023). More recent youth-led and digitally coordinated protests between 2024 and 2025 further exposed persistent challenges relating to crowd management operational restraint and police-community relations within politically volatile urban environments (Kimokoti, 2021; Amnesty International, 2023).
These challenges remain particularly pronounced in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga-kwa-Njenga informal settlements where policing occurs under conditions of socio-economic marginalisation political mobilisation infrastructural deficits and strained state-citizen relations.
Existing studies in Kenya have largely examined electoral violence police reforms democratisation and civilian oversight separately with limited empirical attention directed towards the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight during political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements. Limited attention has also been given to how spatial and socio-economic inequalities shape police conduct accountability and conflict management outcomes during political transitions.
Consequently, the relationship between police professionalism civilian oversight and management of political transition-related conflicts within Nairobi’s informal settlements remains insufficiently understood. This study therefore examined how police professionalism civilian oversight and spatial inequalities influence conflict management during political transitions within Kibera Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya.
1.2 Objective of the study
The study examined the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in the management of political transition-related conflicts within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga in Nairobi. The specific objectives of the study were to:
- Examine the extent to which police officers adhered to professional policing standards in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements;
- Examine the spatial and socio-economic disparities influencing police professionalism during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements;
- Assess the influence of civilian oversight institutions on police professionalism and accountability during the management of political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements; and
- Analyse the challenges and opportunities shaping collaboration between police institutions and civilian oversight institutions in managing political transition-related conflicts in the informal settlements.
2.0 Methodology
The study was conducted in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga informal settlements in Nairobi County, Kenya. The three settlements were selected because of their historical association with political mobilisation electoral violence socio-economic marginalisation and intensive policing operations during political transitions. The settlements have repeatedly experienced demonstrations protest-related confrontations and heightened police deployments during election periods, thereby providing an appropriate urban context for examining the nexus between police professionalism and civilian oversight in the management of political transition-related conflicts.
Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga further represent densely populated urban spaces characterised by poverty infrastructural deficits unemployment strained police-community relations and uneven state presence which collectively shape policing outcomes accountability processes and conflict dynamics during politically sensitive periods.
Professionalism, accountability and conflict management
Figure 1.1 presents the geographical location of Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga within Nairobi County.
The figure illustrates the spatial distribution of the three informal settlements and demonstrates their concentration in densely populated urban zones characterised by infrastructural pressure and socio-economic deprivation. The map further highlights the strategic positioning of the settlements within Nairobi’s urban structure, thereby explaining their continued significance in political mobilisation, public demonstrations and policing operations during political transition periods.
The study adopted a mixed-methods research design grounded within interpretivist and pragmatic paradigms. The design enabled integration of quantitative and qualitative approaches in order to generate a comprehensive understanding of police professionalism civilian oversight and conflict management within Nairobi’s informal settlements. The quantitative approach facilitated examination of measurable pattern relationships and variations associated with police professionalism, oversight mechanisms and conflict management outcomes, while the qualitative approach generated deeper interpretive insights regarding institutional experiences operational realities police-community relations and accountability practices during political transitions. The integration of the two approaches strengthened triangulation convergence and corroboration of findings from multiple sources thereby enhancing the credibility reliability and analytical depth of the study.
The scope of the study was limited to Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga informal settlements in Nairobi County and focused on political transition-related conflicts experienced during elections protests and politically sensitive public demonstrations in Kenya. The study specifically examined police professionalism, civilian oversight, spatial disparities, accountability mechanisms and police-community relations within these informal settlements.
The target population comprised police officers, community members, civilian oversight actors, civil society organisations and local administrators operating within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga. The estimated population across the three settlements was approximately 635,282 residents based on demographic and administrative records. A sample size of 384 respondents was determined using the Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sampling framework. The sample was proportionally distributed across the three settlements with Mukuru-kwa-Njenga receiving 147 respondents, Mathare 125 respondents and Kibera 112 respondents.
The study employed stratified, purposive and simple random sampling techniques. Stratified sampling ensured adequate representation of respondents across the settlements while purposive sampling facilitated selection of key informants including oversight officials, police officers, local administrators and civil society representatives based on their institutional knowledge and operational experience regarding political transition-related conflicts. Simple random sampling was used in selecting community respondents in order to minimize selection bias and enhance representativeness.
Both primary and secondary data were utilised in the study. Quantitative data were collected using structured questionnaires administered to police officers and community respondents. The questionnaires contained closed-ended and Likert-scale items designed to generate measurable responses relating to police professionalism accountability legality proportionality political neutrality civilian oversight and conflict management during political transitions.
Qualitative data were generated through Focus Group Discussions and Key Informant Interviews conducted with community members, police commanders, oversight officials, civil society representatives and local administrators. The interviews and discussions generated experiential and institutional perspectives regarding policing strategies operational challenges accountability processes and police-community relations during politically sensitive periods.
Documentary review was also undertaken using IPOA reports KNCHR reports parliamentary reports constitutional and legislative documents policy publications and scholarly literature relating to police reforms civilian oversight and political transition-related conflicts in Kenya.
Quantitative data were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 28. Descriptive statistics including frequencies percentages means and tables were used to summarise respondent characteristics and policing trends. Pearson correlation analysis examined relationships between variables while multiple regression analysis assessed the influence of police professionalism spatial disparities and civilian oversight on the management of political transition-related conflicts. Qualitative data obtained from Focus Group Discussions Key Informant Interviews and documentary review were analysed thematically through coding categorization and interpretation of recurrent themes narratives and institutional patterns relating to police
3.0 Results and findings
3.1 Respondents’ demographic and deployment characteristics
The findings showed that 62.0% (n=238) of respondents were male while 38.0% (n=146) were female, indicating male dominance within policing and security-related operations during political transition-related conflicts.
In relation to age distribution, 24.1% of respondents were aged between 20-29 years, 42.2% were between 30-39 years, 29.5% were between 40-49 years while 4.2% were aged above 50 years. The findings therefore demonstrated that most respondents were within the economically active and operationally experienced age categories associated with frontline policing responsibilities.
Educationally, 58.1% of respondents possessed secondary-level education, 32.4% held diploma qualifications while 9.5% possessed undergraduate qualifications. In terms of police rank distribution, 26.2% were corporals, 21.5% were sergeants, 19.8% were senior officers, 17.3% were constables and 15.2% were inspectors.
Regarding years of service, 11.8% had served for less than five years, 33.3% had served between 5-10 years, 27.0% between 11-15 years while 27.8% had served for more than 15 years. These findings indicated that the majority of respondents possessed substantial operational experience relating to public order management and political transition-related deployments.
Deployment distribution indicated that 45.6% of respondents were stationed in Mathare, 29.1% in Kibera and 25.3% in Mukuru-kwa-Njenga. The deployment patterns demonstrated significant operational variation across the settlements with Mathare recording higher concentrations of security deployment associated with heightened protest activity and recurrent confrontational policing environments.
Qualitative findings established that Mathare experienced more confrontational policing conditions characterised by rapid escalation of force, heightened operational tension and adversarial police-community interactions. Kibera demonstrated mixed operational patterns combining coercive enforcement with negotiated engagement and periodic community collaboration. Mukuru-kwa-Njenga reflected comparatively restrained policing approaches associated with lower levels of protest intensity and relatively stable police-community relations.
3.2 Police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts
The study established that police professionalism within Nairobi’s informal settlements remained moderate, uneven and spatially differentiated. The Police Professionalism Index (PPI) recorded an overall score of 46%, indicating partial adherence to professional policing standards during political transition-related conflicts. Spatial variation was evident across the settlements with Mukuru-kwa-Njenga recording the highest professionalism score at 55%, followed by Kibera at 45% while Mathare recorded the lowest score at 38%.
3.1: Police Professionalism during Political Transition Conflicts
Table 3.1: Adherence to Lawful Procedures by police officers
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 11.8 |
| Disagree | 3 |
| Neutral | 6.3 |
| Agree | 13.5 |
| Strongly Agree | 65.4 |
| Mean | 4.18 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.37 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The findings indicate a high level of perceived adherence to lawful procedures. A total of 65.4% strongly agree and 13.5% agree while 11.8% strongly disagree and 3.0% disagree. The mean score of 4.18 confirms strong overall agreement. The standard deviation of 1.37 indicates notable dispersion. This establishes a pattern of high aggregate compliance with observable variation across contexts.
Analytically this reflects aggregate compliance with situational variance. At system level officers appear to follow procedure. At interaction level deviations emerge. This pattern aligns with contemporary policing scholarship which shows that procedural justice is widely embedded in formal policing practice yet varies in application depending on context and pressure. Empirical work further demonstrates that officers’ behaviour is shaped by perceived legitimacy and environmental conditions which influence how discretion is exercised in practice.
Spatial context intensifies this variation. Evidence indicates that policing behaviour is conditioned by local environments and patterns of deployment. Studies on policing disparities show significant variation in police presence and conduct across neighbourhoods which shapes how authority is exercised. This supports the finding that professionalism is unevenly distributed across informal settlements.
3.2 Officers demonstrated political neutrality during political transition conflicts
Table 3.2: Political neutrality of police officers
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 11.4 |
| Disagree | 3 |
| Neutral | 5.5 |
| Agree | 36.7 |
| Strongly Agree | 43.5 |
| Mean | 3.98 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.29 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The survey findings show strong reported adherence to lawful procedures. A combined 78.9% agree or strongly agree. The mean score of 4.18 confirms this positive pattern. However, the standard deviation of 1.37 and the 14.8% dissenting responses show that procedural compliance is not uniform. The evidence therefore points to formal procedural compliance with uneven practical enforcement.
This pattern is corroborated by FGDs and KIIs. Police respondents present lawful procedure as the dominant operational norm. Community participants qualify this position. They acknowledge that some officers follow procedure but report that compliance weakens during politically charged protests crowd dispersal and rapid deployments. This confirms that professionalism is strongest under routine conditions but becomes less predictable under pressure.
The findings further showed that 57% of respondents in Mathare reported frequent aggressive policing and disproportionate force during demonstrations compared to 48% in Kibera and 34% in Mukuru-kwa-Njenga. Approximately 63% of respondents indicated that legality and proportionality in the use of force were inconsistently applied during political protests while 59% perceived police accountability mechanisms as weak during politically sensitive operations. In addition, 61% of respondents identified strained police-community relations as a major factor undermining professionalism during political transitions.
3.3 Internal disciplinary mechanisms effectively addressed misconduct during election-related Conflicts
Table 3.3:Effectiveness of internal disciplinary mechanisms
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 11.4 |
| Disagree | 4.2 |
| Neutral | 5.9 |
| Agree | 17.7 |
| Strongly Agree | 60.8 |
| Mean | 4.12 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.34 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The results indicate a generally positive perception of internal disciplinary mechanisms. A total of 60.8% strongly agree and 17.7% agree while 11.4% strongly disagree 4.2% disagree and 5.9% remain neutral. The mean score of 4.12 confirms high aggregate confidence. The standard deviation of 1.34 indicates dispersion. The pattern therefore reflects institutional confidence with observable variation in perceived effectiveness.
Empirically this suggests that internal accountability structures are recognized as functional within the police system.
Documentary evidence supports this dual pattern. Internal accountability is formally anchored within the Internal Affairs Unit and supported by legal and policy frameworks under the Constitution of Kenya 2010 and the National Police Service Act 2011. These frameworks establish clear procedures for investigation and discipline. However empirical studies show that internal systems operate within organizational cultures that discourage reporting and prioritize institutional cohesion.
The dissenting proportion of 24.3% is therefore analytically significant. It reflects exposure to contexts where internal accountability does not translate into visible sanction or corrective action. Community based evidence indicates that perceptions of impunity persist particularly in informal settlements where enforcement is more coercive and less accountable. This aligns with findings that historical patterns of policing and institutional resistance to reform continue to shape accountability outcomes (Kituku 2024).
At the same time documentary evidence from recent electoral cycles indicates measurable improvement. Oversight reports show better organization coordination and restraint during the 2022 elections. This suggests that internal mechanisms can perform more effectively under conditions of heightened scrutiny and structured command oversight (IPOA 2022). The implication is that effectiveness is event dependent and visibility driven rather than consistently institutionalised.
Synthesis of the evidence yields a clear empirical position. Internal disciplinary mechanisms contribute to police professionalism at the formal level. However, their practical effectiveness is uneven. It is shaped by organizational culture political context and oversight exposure. Survey data capture institutional confidence. FGDs and KIIs reveal operational limitations. Documentary sources confirm both improvement and persistence of gaps. The overall conclusion is that internal accountability exists and functions but does not yet produce consistent outcomes across contexts particularly during politically sensitive operations.
3.4 Use of force during demonstrations followed established police guidelines
Table 3.4: Adherence to guidelines on use of force
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 11.4 |
| Disagree | 3.4 |
| Neutral | 6.3 |
| Agree | 27 |
| Strongly Agree | 51.9 |
| Mean | 4.04 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.34 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The research results show that most survey participants believed police officers used force during protests according to their standard operating procedures because 51.9 percent of respondents showed strong agreement and 27.0 percent showed agreement. The majority of officers think that they use force according to current organizational rules and procedures. A substantial number of respondents disagreed with the statement because 11.4 percent showed strong disagreement while 3.4 percent showed regular disagreement which proves that force should not be used in specific situations. A small percentage of participants (6.3%) chose to remain neutral because they held mixed or uncertain opinions. The average score of 4.04 indicates that people generally view their adherence to use-of-force guidelines positively yet they show slightly less agreement than complete agreement which means their compliance will not always occur. The first standard deviation of 1.34 indicates that people who answered the question showed moderate differences in their answers because their operational experiences depend on particular work situations.
3.5 Police officers received adequate training on conflict management
Table 3.5: Adequacy of training on conflict management
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 11.4 |
| Disagree | 3.4 |
| Neutral | 5.9 |
| Agree | 23.2 |
| Strongly Agree | 56.1 |
| Mean | 4.09 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.35 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The study findings demonstrate that most survey participants believed police officers had received sufficient training in conflict management skills which police officers needed to operate during political transitions. Most officers believed their training has prepared them to manage conflict during politically sensitive times according to this finding. The respondents showed a notable proportion of dissatisfaction because 11.4% of them strongly disagreed while 3.4% of them disagreed which showed that some officers required additional training according to their needs.
3.3 Spatial Socio-Economic Disparities and Police Professionalism
The findings established a strong relationship between spatial socio-economic inequalities and police professionalism within the informal settlements. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a statistically significant positive relationship between spatial inequality and policing outcomes (r = 0.868, p < 0.05), indicating that operational environments characterised by poverty, infrastructural deficits and political marginalisation significantly shaped policing conduct and accountability outcomes.
Regression analysis further identified spatial inequality as the strongest predictor of police professionalism (β = 0.52), compared to oversight effectiveness (β = 0.33) and collaborative policing mechanisms (β = 0.24). The regression model produced an R² value of 0.832 and an F-statistic of 367.25 (p < 0.001), demonstrating that the explanatory variables significantly accounted for variations in police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts.
Qualitative findings established that densely populated and economically marginalised settlements experienced more aggressive surveillance, intensified police deployments and coercive crowd-control strategies. Respondents particularly associated Mathare with confrontational policing linked to narrow settlement structures, high protest density and historical tensions between residents and security agencies.
3.4 Influence of civilian oversight on police professionalism
The study found that civilian oversight mechanisms positively influenced police professionalism and accountability during political transition-related conflicts. Oversight effectiveness scores were comparatively higher in Mukuru-kwa-Njenga (61%) followed by Kibera (53%) and Mathare (46%), indicating uneven accessibility and effectiveness of accountability mechanisms across the settlements.
Pearson correlation analysis demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between civilian oversight and police professionalism (r = 0.735, p < 0.05). The findings further indicated that respondents who reported higher visibility of oversight institutions also reported relatively improved perceptions regarding accountability, restraint and procedural conduct during policing operations. Approximately 58% of respondents believed that civilian oversight institutions contributed positively toward improving police accountability while 64% emphasized the importance of independent investigations into police misconduct during political transitions.
Qualitative findings established that oversight institutions played an important role in documenting abuses, facilitating accountability discussions and strengthening public confidence in policing reforms. However, respondents also identified delays in investigations, limited enforcement powers and inadequate institutional presence within informal settlements as constraints undermining oversight effectiveness.
3.5 Challenges and opportunities for police professionalism and civilian oversight
The study identified operational pressures, political interference, inadequate logistical resources, weak institutional coordination and command-driven deployments as major challenges affecting police professionalism during political transitions. Approximately 67% of respondents identified political interference as a significant obstacle to professional policing while 54% associated operational misconduct with inadequate training and crowd-management preparation. Additionally, 49% of respondents linked confrontational policing to inadequate communication between police institutions and local communities during protests and demonstrations.
3.6 Coordination between police and civilian oversight institutions is effective
Table 3.6: Effectiveness of coordination
| Response Category | Percentage (%) |
| Strongly Disagree | 16.9 |
| Disagree | 4.2 |
| Neutral | 10.5 |
| Agree | 19.8 |
| Strongly Agree | 48.5 |
| Mean | 3.79 |
| Standard Deviation | 1.44 |
Source: Researcher (2026)
The findings presented in Table 3.6 reveal a complex picture of institutional collaboration between police and civilian oversight institutions during political transition-related conflicts in Nairobi’s informal settlements. With 68.3% of participants agreeing or strongly agreeing that coordination is effective (mean = 3.79, SD = 1.44), the data suggests a cautiously positive assessment from the majority. However, the substantial standard deviation and the 21.1% who disagree indicate significant variability in experiences across different contexts and institutional interfaces.
Despite these challenges, the findings identified important opportunities for strengthening police professionalism and civilian oversight. Respondents emphasised the importance of continuous human rights training, scenario-based crowd management, de-escalation capacity building and enhanced institutional collaboration between police agencies and oversight actors. Approximately 72% of respondents supported institutionalised police-community engagement frameworks while 69% recommended strengthening oversight coordination and decentralised accountability mechanisms within informal settlements.
Summary of the findings
The findings of the study demonstrated that police professionalism during political transition-related conflicts within Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga remained uneven, spatially differentiated and operationally contingent. The study established that professionalism was shaped by the interaction between operational environments, institutional accountability structures and collaborative governance mechanisms rather than by individual officer conduct alone. Quantitative findings were triangulated with qualitative evidence from FGDs, KIIs and documentary review to explain how professionalism was practiced and experienced across the three informal settlements during political transition-related conflicts.
4.0 Interpretation of the findings
4.1 Police professionalism as a moderate and uneven practice
The findings demonstrate that police professionalism within informal settlements is not uniformly institutionalised but varies according to operational environment, political pressures and socio-economic conditions. The moderate PPI scores indicate partial institutional reform alongside persistent structural weaknesses. These findings reinforce arguments that professionalism within conflict-prone urban spaces remains constrained by both organizational and environmental factors.
4.2 Spatial inequality as a predictor of policing outcomes
The strong predictive influence of spatial inequalities demonstrates that policing practices are deeply embedded within broader urban governance structures. Informal settlements experiencing marginalisation and political exclusion are subjected to more coercive policing approaches. This suggests that professionalism cannot be understood independently from the structural conditions shaping police-community interaction.
4.3 Civilian oversight as an accountability mechanism
The findings establish that civilian oversight contributes positively toward accountability and professional conduct. However, oversight effectiveness depends significantly on institutional coordination accessibility and enforcement capacity. Oversight therefore operates as a relational rather than purely institutional process shaped by interaction between statutory institutions civil society organisations and affected communities.
The study further demonstrates that sustainable peace during political transitions is closely linked to the legitimacy accountability and professionalism of state security institutions. Political transition-related conflicts within informal settlements are not only security challenges but also manifestations of deeper structural grievances associated with exclusion inequality marginalisation and weakened state legitimacy. Effective management of political transition-related conflicts therefore requires professional accountable and community-responsive policing systems grounded in constitutionalism procedural justice and protection of human rights.
5.0 Conclusion
The study concludes that police professionalism within Nairobi’s informal settlements remains moderate and spatially uneven during political transition-related conflicts. While civilian oversight contributes positively toward accountability and procedural compliance its effectiveness is constrained by fragmented coordination limited enforcement capacity and operational challenges. Spatial socio-economic inequalities significantly shape policing outcomes and intensify coercive operational practices within marginalised urban settlements reflecting broader historical patterns in the policing of informal settlements in Kenya. Strengthening police professionalism therefore requires integrated reforms focused on accountability operational transparency community engagement and strengthened civilian oversight coordination.
6.0 Recommendations
The study recommends strengthening operational accountability through independent monitoring systems, decentralised oversight reporting structures and improved command responsibility within informal settlements. Police training programmes should institutionalise de-escalation techniques procedural justice human rights compliance negotiation skills and conflict-sensitive crowd management. The study further recommends strengthening the institutional capacity of civilian oversight bodies through enhanced enforcement authority adequate logistical and financial support timely investigation processes and improved accessibility of reporting mechanisms within marginalised settlements. Greater coordination between police agencies civilian oversight institutions civil society organisations faith-based actors and local communities should also be institutionalised through structured collaborative frameworks to enhance accountability and conflict prevention.
Suggestions for future research
Future research should:
- Undertake longitudinal studies examining police professionalism and civilian oversight across successive electoral cycles in Kenya. This is important for assessing whether ongoing policing reforms and accountability mechanisms produce sustainable institutional transformation over time rather than temporary operational adjustments during elections.
- Comparative studies should be conducted across other informal settlements and conflict-prone regions in Kenya and the East African Community in order to determine whether the patterns identified in Kibera, Mathare and Mukuru-kwa-Njenga are context-specific or regionally consistent. Such studies would strengthen understanding of spatially differentiated policing and civilian oversight dynamics.
- Refine and validate the Police Professionalism Index (PPI) as a democratic policing assessment framework capable of measuring legality, accountability, proportionality and public trust beyond traditional crime-cantered policing indicators. This would strengthen empirical measurement of police professionalism within politically sensitive and conflict-prone environments.
Authorship contribution statement:
- Peter Wasswa Mulesi (PhD Candidate) -Writing original draft, Visualization, Validation, Software, Resources, research administration, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization.
- Prof. Kennedy Onkware: Review & editing, Validation, Supervision, study administration, Methodology, Conceptualization.
- Dr. George Akolo Lutomia, PhD: Review & editing, Visualisation, Validation, Supervision, analysis and conceptualisation
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to the School of Disaster Management and Humanitarian Assistance (SDMHA) and the Department of Peace and Conflict Studies for approving this research. The collection of data was made possible through the approval of NACOSTI and the office of the Inspector General, National Police Service, Nairobi City County, Kenya.
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